Teams and Groups Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Groups and Groups - Case Study Example The market for wood is value serious and items are separated by their introduction and appearance. Accordingly clients have begun to move to different contenders who produce comparable items yet of a more prominent quality at a similar cost. The movement inside the bundling group of receiving time-misfortune design has become a standard to this specific work group. Therefore, all brief laborers whenever allowed to turn out to be a piece of the bundling group embraces this standard. The executives can change the managers and as opposed to permitting the sawmill chief to regulator the bundling division pick a boss from bundling. This will aid the strengthening of the laborers when laborers feel engaged they produce better. Furthermore, a boss from the bundling office would comprehend the way of life and have the option to make changes to the standard simpler than an untouchable. The extra time costs which would be sliced can be utilized to give extra motivating forces to this office. So as to capture the decrease in the mill’s appraisals the executives can maybe utilize the additional time cash which will be diminished to utilize more than one administrator in this division. One for the general managing of creation and one for the testing of the nature of the completed items. The market for lumber is value serious and items are separated by their introduction and appearance consequently Treetop must start to separate dependent on sound quality and great appearance once more. Treetop’s the executives can isolate the bundling office into groups and permit there to be rivalry among the groups for development in efficiency. Rivalry would make a concentration for the group and spur them to create at their best. Subsequently, the general expenses should start to decrease when laborers start to deliver ideally due to

Oral Language and Reading Comprehension Essay Example for Free

Oral Language and Reading Comprehension Essay This paper is deliberately made to show the examination between oral language and understanding cognizance. Oral language and perusing perception are both basic to each person. We all had experienced oral language when we are as yet youthful and as it creates and as we develop and develop, it empowers us to be increasingly proficient and sets us up to a progressively required understanding in perusing. This two are critical and are interrelated to one another. As a parent, conversing with the kid helps extends jargon, create foundation information, and rouse an oddity about the world. The more a youngster connects with into specific encounters and all the more discovering that begins from guardians and afterward to educators, it will augment their psyches and grants them into an increasingly expansive comprehension of various things. Oral language is the very discovering that every one of us has experienced we despite everything have it up to now. This paper will expand your insight concerning the examination between oral language and understanding perception. Foundation of the Study: Oral language implies speaking with others. Then again, perusing cognizance is the demonstration of understanding what you are perusing. The definition can be basically expressed the demonstration isn't easy to educate, learn or practice. Perusing cognizance is a purposeful, dynamic, intelligent procedure that happens previously, during and after an individual peruses a specific bit of composing. Oral language and perusing understanding are both basic on the grounds that in oral language we are prepared on the most proficient method to discuss well with others. Understanding appreciation, then again, is additionally a method of understanding the book that we read; it could be only a straightforward magazine, paper, or even the books we utilized in school. An individual must have the option to comprehend what the person in question is perusing. It is important that we realize how to talk or impart yet one thing that is valuable too in our regular day to day existences is the capacity to peruse and comprehend what we read. There is a finished distinction among â€Å"reading† and â€Å"reading with comprehension†. Presently, as you proceed to peruse this paper, you will be taken care of with more thoughts with the examination between communicated in language and understanding cognizance and how these two work together for an increasingly familiar act of correspondence. It will build up your correspondence and understanding abilities; that it isn't sufficient to realize how to talk and read however having the option to talk and simultaneously acknowledge what you are perusing and even apply these, in actuality, circumstances. Related Study: Oral language A lot of research has been done in the field of oral language securing. As a methods for endeavoring to arrange their condition kids effectively build language (Dyson, 1983; Halliday, 1994; Sulzby,1985). From a childs most punctual involvement in close to home story advancement, oral language procurement must be ceaselessly cultivated. (IRA and NAEYC, 1998). This turns into the structure obstruct for building up accomplishment in every aspect of proficiency. Oral language starts to create at a youthful age as kids and guardians interface with each other in the normal environmental factors of the home condition (Teale, 1978; Yaden, 1988). A childs home condition incredibly impacts the rate, quality and capacity to speak with others (MacLean, Bryant and Bradley, 1987; Martinez, 1983; National Research Council 1999). Components identified with language development in the home condition incorporate parent communication, books, being perused to, displaying; home language and proficiency schedules all intently equal those of the homeroom and school. The improvement of oral language is a progressing common learning process. Kids watch oral correspondence in numerous settings †home, preschool, prekindergarten, and start to create ideas about its motivations (Dyson, 1983; Halliday,1994;Martinez, 1983). Target aptitude zones, for example, sequencing, order, and letter sounds oral language abilities are on the whole segments of youth instructive projects (Kelley and Zamar, 1994). Which means is a social and social marvel and all development of significance is a social procedure. Formative phases of kid language improvement: Phase I †Protolinguistic or â€Å"Protolanguage†, Phase II †Transition, Phase III †Language. The Protolanguage Stage (which is related with the creeping stage) incorporates clamors and sound, physical development, grown-up/baby collaboration †this trade of consideration is the start of language. During the Transition Stage (which is related with the formative phase of strolling) there is a progress from kid tongue to first language. During this stage the â€Å"pragmatic† mode creates; an interest for products and enterprises that looks for a reaction as an activity. In Phase III †Language Stage, the kid moves from discussing imparted understanding to sharing data to a third individual. The youngster understands that the truth is past their own understanding; they welcome affirmation, appreciate shared understanding. From the ontogenesis of discussion we can pick up knowledge into human learning and human comprehension. Which means is made at the convergence of two logical inconsistencies †the experiential one, between the material and the cognizant methods of experience, and the relational one, between various individual accounts of the cooperating partaking (Halliday,1994). Appropriately created oral language empowers a kid to viably convey their considerations and perspectives with others. It is likewise significant for small kids to have created listening aptitudes as they experience the intensity of correspondence. The earth impacts ones want to convey just as the recurrence of correspondence. Oral language creates through real encounters (Harste, Burke and Woodward, 1994). Kindergarten study hall conditions that are bursting at the seams with social communication are perfect situations for supporting talking and listening aptitudes. As youngsters partake in open occasions, they gradually gain a comprehension of the significance of these structures. Understudies should be given and urged to take an interest in natural proficiency exercises, as those encounters are vital to language advancement (Brown and Briggs, 1987). Advancement of oral language abilities must be tended to in Kindergarten as a basic piece of the every day educational program with the goal for understudies to have the option to prevail all through tutoring and in todays society (Goodman, 1992; IRI and NAEYC,1998). Kindergarten programs should be organized yet not formal. Study halls that are painstakingly organized take into consideration most extreme oral language obtaining through bona fide education exercises that happen in characteristic manners during a school day (Ellermeyer, 1988). Training is request based, and as such the concentration with instruction becomes learning, and the undertaking of educating turns into the request procedure. The student is focal, during the time spent the learning-request cycle (Harste, Burke and Woodward,1994). Understudies should be given and urged to take an interest in natural education exercises, as these encounters are imperative to language improvement. Dyson (1983) directed an investigation of the job early language plays in early composition. Through perceptions of youngsters at a Kindergarten composing focus she presumed that oral language is an indispensable piece of the early creative cycle. Talk gave both importance and to certain youngsters the deliberate methods for getting that significance on paper. The kid as a language student advances along a formative continuum. Language securing is in a general sense a social procedure wherein language is utilized to make and offer importance of experience (Corter and Park, 1993). Kids expect chances to communicate with the two companions and grown-ups in a wide assortment of settings as they learning and practice language and proficiency information, abilities, and techniques (Brown and Briggs 1987; Coohn, 1981; Dyson, 1983; Ellermeyer, 1988). Kids like to discuss themselves, their companions, their families, their pets, their leisure activities, and so on. Drawing in small kids in discussion about things with which they are natural manages them a solace level to try different things with approaches to communicate. Chances to build oral language capacities and applications are installed inside the education program. Discussion, cooperation, and learning through others are essential to learning. A childs oral language capacity is the reason for starting proficiency guidance, and as such beginning casual evaluations just as progressing appraisal during the school year would give key data with respect to a childs oral language capacities.

Vital Nature Of Human Being Engineering Essay Free Essays

string(70) Induction Motor that has been applied in completing this undertaking. Bing in safe place is a basic nature of individual. Something less endeavor capable ever draws in human head. This innovation has a place in a zone unquestionably further developed than a fan worked by a manual controller. We will compose a custom exposition test on Imperative Nature Of Human Being Engineering Essay or then again any comparative point just for you Request Now This gadget controls the speed of the commencement engine utilized in a fan naturally by feeling the current. Like typical family fan controllers it does non require any going to for directing the speed of the fan and hence it lessens human endeavor which is extremely much obvious to us. It utilizes a TRIAC ( Triode for AC ) based hardware which limits vitality ingestion and along these lines spares power Vongmanee ( 2004 ) . It gives a wide control of working temperature degree to the client while other than providing manual control in example of interest. These qualities are each piece fascinating each piece great as extremely utile for the unremarkable classification due to a low buying and care cost. This entire development will be talked about in wining focuses. Force electronic convertors can be found any place there is an interest to alter the electrical vitality signifier ( for example adjust its electromotive power, current or frequence ) . Consequently, their capacity scope from some milli watts ( as in a roaming telephone ) to 100s of megawatts ( e.g in a HVDC transmittal framework ) . With â€Å" old style † hardware, electrical flows and electromotive power are utilized to ship data, though with power gadgets, they convey power. Along these lines the main measurement of intensity gadgets turns into the effectiveness Rabisankar ( 2012 ) . Most force hardware frameworks comprise of two significant resources which are power gadgets processor that handles power transportation from contribution to final result and bookkeeper that advises the force processor of what to make by taking the estimating that occurs at final result and contrasted with input. Issue Statement These days, numerous enterprises using electrical machine in their factory. Electrical machine are utilized to accomplish the work should be possible in cut and to chop down work power in the business. There is a few kind of electrical machine we are using today. We have DC engine, for example, DC arrangement engine and DC shunt engine. We other than have synchronal engine that runs at constant speed and we are other than holding commencement engine. A rectifier is an electronic circuit that changes over bidirectional electromotive power ( AC electromotive power ) to unidirectional electromotive power ( DC electromotive power ) by using power redressing tubes or by instructing the terminating point of thyristor/controllable switches. Rectifier regularly can be separated into two kinds that are uncontrolled and stage controlled. Each type can hold either singular stage or three-stage. A correcting tube is the easiest gadgets switch which it is uncontrolled that the on and off regions can be dictated by the force flexibly in the circuit itself. Air conditioning to DC convertor is generally utilized in enterprises what's more in household gear. Yet, numerous rectifiers in the market just produce fixed finished result so the utilizations of the rectifiers are constrained for certain gear simply. Along these lines, the DC level of the finished result and the force moved to the weight are fixed when the start and weight parametric amounts are built up. Holmes ( 1993 ) , Zein ( 1999 ) and Kischan ( 2010 ) . In this way, to improve of this activity there is a way to order the finished result electromotive power of the rectifier. Fundamentally, the individual stage rectifier is structured using the thyristors or all the more explicitly are called Silicon Control Rectifier ( SCR ) which associated in full-wave rectifier. A thyristor is four beds ( pnpn ) semiconducting material gadgets that go about as switches, rectifiers or electromotive power controllers. Thyristors are electronic switches utilized in power hardware circuits where control of switch turn-on is required force Vongmanee ( 2004 ) . Along these lines, the finished result electromotive power can be variable from the extent of nothing electromotive power to full electromotive power by directing the hold point of the SCR. Point and Aims 1.3.1 Aim The reason for the endeavor is to order the speed of individual stage commencement engine using microcontroller. 1.3.2 Aims To design the AC electromotive power convertor to changing engine electromotive power To execute the speed finder for feeling the speed To make the arrangement for directing the activity of electromotive power convertor Extent of the review This endeavor focuses on an advancement of a circuit and equipment to procure dc finished result using SCR and PIC16F84A as boss constituent of the endeavor. Other than the Scopess is to design a microcontroller to order hold edge Iâ ± and it created variable final results ( speed ) . To build up the entire endeavor, it comprises of three techniques which are the develop of move, the electrical development, and the bundle planning. In the wake of planing and structure completely the rectifier circuit, the driver circuit ought to have the option to order the hold edge Iâ ± , that can be balanced by using microcontroller. It will influence the booking improvement to order the ON area of the force switch and alter the stage edge. Here, the trigger edge of SCRs will be customized in certain clasp grouping to ensure the info electromotive power goes from low to full electromotive power. Report Structure There are each of the six sections being developments in this theory and each part will lucubrate in thing about this endeavor. For the principal part, a review about this endeavor, Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor is talked about including the points and Scopess of the endeavor as an attendant to build up the individual stage controlled rectifier. Section 2 will explain and talk on the writing reappraisal of the Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor. It other than centers around general presentation of the AC to DC convertor with the total data about this convertor. It gives a short reappraisal about the sorts of the rectifiers: uncontrolled and controlled individual stage and three phase convertors utilized as rectifiers. In this part other than examine about the kind of thyristor andthe highlight of each sort. Section 3 talks about the methodological analysiss of the Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor that has been applied in completing this endeavor. You read Imperative Nature Of Human Being Engineering Essay in class Article models In this part, it comprises of square graph and motion outline which are clarified about the strategy of execution and how the AC electromotive power changes over to DC electromotive power so associated with the weight, for example, DC engine. It is other than examines quickly how the finished result electromotive power can be fluctuated. Section 4: we talk about the bundle and equipment execution of the Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor using stream diagrams and reenactment ramifications for bundle execution and PCB design and equipment working for equipment execution Section 5 is talking and uncovering all the results acquired and the limitation of the endeavor. All medicines are focused on the outcome and the general open introduction of the Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor. Section 6 in generally speaking will talk on the choice and summarize of the improvement of the Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor finished endeavor. In this section other than talks about on the occupations and proposal for this endeavor advancement or modification. Part 2 Writing REVIEW A ; THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Introduction The writing reappraisal and the hypothetical foundation about this endeavor have been produced using arranged beginnings like journals, books, articles and others. From the writing reappraisal, the information that have been gathered is utile for better fear of this endeavor. It is on the grounds that for about a century, rectifier circuits have been the most widely recognized force hardware circuits used to change over AC to DC. The AC-DC convertor delivers a DC finished result from an AC input while the mean force moved from an AC starting to a DC trouble. This convertor typically adjacent to called as a rectifier. The word amendment is utilized non in light of the fact that these circuits produce DC however rather in light of the fact that the present streams in a single manner. All things considered, there are two sorts of AC-DC convertors which are uncontrolled and controlled. 2.2 Literature Review Here in the writing reappraisal we comprehend about this endeavor have been produced using arranged beginnings like journals, books, articles and others. From the writing reappraisal, the info that have been gathered is utile for better worry of this endeavor 2.2.1 Background of Induction engine Commencement engines are little engines holding a final result power short of what one Equus caballus power and are all around worked on singular stage AC gracefully. These engines perform varieties of administration in the spot, office, concern concerns, plants and cultivates and in a figure of different applications where individual stage gracefully is accessible. The speed of commencement engine can be decreased by reducing stator electromotive power by a whole which is adequate for the speed control of certain pushes. While torsion is comparative with voltage squared, current is comparative with voltage subsequently, as electromotive power is decreased to chop down speed, for same current engine creates lower torsion. Subsequently, technique is appropriate for application where torsion request diminishes with speed, which focuses towards its appropriateness for fan and siphon pushes. Variable electromotive power for speed control is gotten using air conditioning electromotive power accou

Cell Phone History - The Evolution of the Cell Phone :: Expository Essays

PDA History - The Evolution of the Cell Phone Phones have become a piece of standard culture. As of late they have gotten more moderate and achieve significantly more than making and accepting calls. Alongside the developing notoriety there is likewise developing worries about wellbeing and wellbeing. In this paper we will address mobile phone history and how they have advanced. We will examine wellbeing concerns, for example, tumors and talking while at the same time driving. At last, we will discuss the entirety of the innovation that phones can achieve, for example, getting Email and purchasing stocks. History: In 1921 the Detroit Michigan Police Department initially utilized portable radio in a vehicle. Computerized remote and cell establishes began during the 1940s. During the 1940s new frequencies somewhere in the range of 30 and 40 MHz were accessible. There was an expansion of accessibility in channels which police frameworks were urged to utilize. Portable units were accessible inside privately owned businesses, people, and open offices. In St. Louis, 1945 the main cell phone framework in the US was presented. Along the parkway between New York and Boston a Public portable framework conveyed more prominent recurrence separation in 1947. In 1n 1949, the FFC approved separate radio channels to basic bearers. Another framework was created with programmed direct determination in 1964. With this new framework each call permitted clients to dial for themselves and it dispensed with the need to push-to-talk activity. In 1975, in Chicago, AT&T was approved to build up a cell framework. Af ter this AT&T and Bell labs work with other cell sellers to build up their mobile phones. Their telephones were made so buyers would have the quality items accessible to use on cell systems. There are numerous reasons why the versatile remote has not advanced further over the most recent 60 years, this is a direct result of circumspection and government guideline. The Federal Communications Commission controlled recurrence accessibility. Their guidelines and lethargy had the most huge elements upsetting radiotelephone advancement. The Federal Communication Commission postponed the innovation in America by ten years. Wellbeing: Mind tumors and eye malignant growth are two wellbeing worries of PDAs that are right now under scrutiny. Numerous individuals have heard bits of gossip about whether mobile phones are liable for these medical issues, however answers never appear to be found.

Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Valproic Acid and Autism - Free Essay Example

INTRODUCTION Autism is a neurodevelopmental Disorder, one of five disorders classified collectively as autism spectrum disorder, is diagnosable by the age of three. Diagnosed individuals may show many symptoms such as pervasive impairments in social interactions, deficits in verbal and nonverbal communication and, stereotyped, repetitive patterns of behaviors interests (Zimmermann, Gaspary, Leite, Cognato, Bonan, 2015). Autism is said to have a strong genetic environmental connection. However, the etiology of autism has not yet been copiously understood or studied (Chen, et al., 2018). Effects of prenatal exposure to valproic acid, one of the widely used antiepileptic drug for the treatment of seizures and bipolar disorder and overactivation of Protein Kinase C is being discussed in this paper (Liu, et al., 2018). PRENATAL EXPOSURE TO VALPROIC ACID Exposure to valproic acid during embryonic growth adjusts neural progenitor cell proliferation and could also cause behavioral disfigurements in adult organisms (Lee, Kim, Yun, Lee, 2013). Embryos collected from Wild-type AB line spawning adult zebrafish within about 0.5 h of spawning had been exposed to a VPA stock solution of 500 mM for the initial step of this study. The working solution had been prepared by diluting stock solution instantly prior to the experiment. The six different concentrations of solutions where the embryos from 8 to 120 h post fertilization were continuously exposed were between 0 and 1500 ?M, with the 0 being the control (Chen, et al., 2018). Developmental endpoints measured in this study comprised of malformations mortality at 120 hours post fertilization. In this study the experiments contained of three biological triplicates with 20 embryos in each repeat. At the end embryos were moved to clean fish water for additional evaluations where the size of their head was measured at 4.5 days post fertilization and behavioral patterns were evaluated five days post fertilization with the use of Alcian blue stain and Image J software procedures (Chen, et al., 2018). Zebrafish embryos exposed to Valproic acid were assessed for Embryonic and larval movement behaviors, spontaneous movement such as alternating tail bending or coiling, the response to touch in embryos that were manually dechorionated and the distance moved after touching were scored manually. Moreover, Larvae were adapted for 20 minutes before recording swimming for 10min visible light period, followed by a 10-minute dark (infrared light) period for evaluation of the average swim speed in light and dark atmospheres (Chen, et al., 2018). Basic tracking settings were used for larval movement tests such as their preference behavior of light and dark backgrounds and the number of times larva crossed between light dark areas where data collected every 60sec for 6 minutes. Shoaling behaviors, Mirror attack behaviors and, Social contact were additional tests that was carried out (Chen, et al., 2018). OVERACTIVATION OF PROTEIN KINASE C AB strain zebrafish larvae soaked in PMA, a Phorbol 12-myristate- Subgroup of PKC enzyme between 48?hours and 72?post fertilization were used in this study. Once the chorions were detached at 12?hours post fertilization embryos were exposed to DMSO and PMA, then collected for subsequent analysis once 24 hours passed. RNA isolation and Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was carried out on an ABI Viia 7 Real Time PCR System for further analysis at the end of the experimental procedures (Liu, et al., 2018). The head size was demarcated by the otic vesicle semicircle of eyes as posterior and lower frontier. Measurements just as in the previous study were estimated using ImageJ software. For the Behavioral assays larval fish that were placed in a 24-well plate inside a wooden box were monitored on automated video tracking system in two cycles of 5-minute light and 5-minute dark backgrounds. Western blotting, Immunostaining and, TUNEL labeling procedures had been used for additional valuations (Liu, et al., 2018). RESULTS It was confirmed that valproic acid exposures induced several malformations in the zebrafish. Uninflated swim bladder, pericardial edema and yolk sac edema had been observed. Consequently, the occurrence of abnormalities was found to be significantly diverse compared to control larvae at concentrations including and above 500 ?M (P Most importantly it was found that valproic acid exposure in zebrafish produced a macrocephalic phenotypic head where the circumference of the head is greater than 2 standard deviations than average for a given age and sex. However, no changes in the body length were noted. Additionally, the lowest concentration of valproic acid (5 ?M, P The hypothesis of early-life PKC hyper-activation leading to mild developmental delay and reduced brain size resulting in neurogenic defects was verified in the study of protein kinase experimentation. It was also evaluated that zebrafish exposed to PMA were hypoactive in lighted backgrounds and hyperactive in the dark phased environments (Liu, et al., 2018). DISCUSSION Evaluating the studies, it is clear that non-teratogenic valproic acid exposure resulted in macrocephalic phenotypes in larval zebrafish, fabricating hyperactivity and impaired social behavior (Chen, et al., 2018). Deficits in social interaction, anxiety and stereotyped activities which are considered outcomes of a dysfunctional neural system could be compared with some of the core characteristics associated with autism spectrum disorders (Lee, Kim, Yun, Lee, 2013). Increased head circumference and volume is also a clear visual abnormality that could be seen in some autistic individuals at a certain point of their life. PKC hyper-activation during early development could cause many pathological features such as developmental delays, motor abnormalities and exaggerated stress responses. Furthermore, neuropathogenic effects of developmental PKC hyper-activation was reinforced by behavioral changes (Liu, et al., 2018). Several neurological and psychiatric syndromes are characterized by variations in the social realm (Zimmermann, Gaspary, Leite, Cognato, Bonan, 2015). The optical lucidity and quick development, comparable stages and components of the central nervous system to higher vertebrates, all have made Zebrafish an ideal and advantageous model for many different research studies (Roper Tanguay, 2018). Even though behavioral studies could be immeasurable accurately the identification of targetable molecular pathways underlying neurodevelopmental defects could create paths in the development of possible therapeutic strategies for autism as well as countless other disorders that affect the society. References Chen, J., Lei, L., Tian, L., Hou, F., Roper, C., Ge, X., . . . Huang, C. (2018). Developmental and behavioral alterations in zebrafish embryonically exposed to valproic acid (VPA): An aquatic model for autism. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,66, 8-16. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2018.01.002 Kim, L., He, L., Maaswinkel, H., Zhu, L., Sirotkin, H., Weng, W. (2014). Anxiety, hyperactivity and stereotypy in a zebrafish model of fragile X syndrome and autism spectrum disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry,55, 40-49. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.03.007 Lee, Y., Kim, Y., Yun, J., Lee, C. (2013). Valproic acid decreases the proliferation of telencephalic cells in zebrafish larvae. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,39, 91-99. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2013.07.004 Liu, T., Shi, Y., Chan, M. T., Peng, G., Zhang, Q., Sun, X., . . . Cheng, C. H. (2018). Developmental protein kinase C hyper-activation results in microcephaly and behavioral abnormalities in zebrafish. Translational Psyc hiatry,8(1). doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0285-5 Roper, C., Tanguay, R. L. (2018). Zebrafish as a Model for Developmental Biology and Toxicology. Handbook of Developmental Neurotoxicology,143-151. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809405-1.00012-2 Zimmermann, F. F., Gaspary, K. V., Leite, C. E., Cognato, G. D., Bonan, C. D. (2015). Embryological exposure to valproic acid induces social interaction deficits in zebrafish (Danio rerio): A developmental behavior analysis. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,52, 36-41. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2015.10.002

Technology Social Media Playfulness and Human Affect - Free Essay Example

Play has long been a fascinating topic for researchers studying children psychology, but Proyer (2017) examines how play in general in its respective field is severely understudied and even less research is undertaken with adults. The author acknowledges that across any particular discipline, play and playfulness are incredibly difficult to define and measure, which may explain why the research is so scarce. Despite these difficulties however, studies have begun to increase over the last several years focusing on play and playfulness, specifically adult play. Even with the difficulties of defining and measuring play and playfulness, Barnett (2007) was able to devise a system of descriptors and traits that are commonly related to playfulness were then further placed on a sliding scale of low to high. The goal of the study was to see if playfulness in general could be more easily identified as a psychological construct in young adults (university students) (Barnett 2007). Even with the difficulties of measuring playfulness, this study showed how playfulness can be defined and measured even if it means different things to different people. Looking at adult play from a historical standpoint, Voogt (2017) explores how games of strategy, and the use of such game play by adults is more likely to be found in more complex societies. Even though strategy games are more often than not played by adults, the bulk of game-play research up to this point has primarily been focused on children instead of adults. Since there is no current research on the connection between adult play in general and the historical significance of games, the author suggests that research on the combined two would be a productive move forward. When looking at modern society, it has become increasingly frowned upon for adults to engage in play. Adults are seen as the responsible members of society and any activity that has the potential to go against that or embarrass the adult is therefore seen as unacceptable. Exploring this topic further, Deterding (2018) looks how the societal standard of play (often referred to as childlike play) is at odds with what it considered appropriate and responsible adult conduct. He aims to uncover ways that adult play can live within the standards of society without being embarrassing. Deterding examines how even though adult play is frowned upon, adults do engage in play quite frequently and often quite unashamedly: Bingo nights, bowling clubs, Adult Fans of Legos, etc. (Deterding 2018). Yet, the underlying problem remains that adults should be embarrassed by partaking in playful activities. The study aims to further uncover the connection between adulthood, play, and embarrassment, and how to engage adults in non-embarrassing play. While play in general is often seen as a negative adult activity, Scott (2018) examines the role of the more acceptable leisurely adult in peoples lives. Scott aims to rediscover the adult play group, which he defines as a collection of adults who meet at regular intervals to participate in a given leisure activity (Scott 2018). The scholar notes that leisure activities in general can be deeply enjoyable flow experiences that result in people becoming completely absorbed by the action and losing all sense of time and place (Scott 2018). While there is plenty of research on leisure activities in and of themselves, there are far less studies about adults who participate in common leisure activities. Scott attempts to show not only how adult play groups form, but how they operate on a finer level to create social capital and potentially empower their participants. In another study pertaining to the implications of adult play, L. and Stenros (2018) attempt to explore the implications behind the phrase adult play, insinuating that even though sexual play could be a part of this broader topic, there are many branches of other activities that could equally be classified as adult play. Through a series of articles, Stenros, et al. uncovers that from a societal standpoint, it appears to be more transgressive and risky for adults to engage in an activity marked as play that is not of a sexual nature (Stenros, et al. 2018). The research of these articles attempts to build bridges between different research traditions. Since adult play is such a vast field, it could be approached from the discipline of game studies but also from sexology, toy studies, sociology, play studies, and game design research (Stenros, et al. 2018). Now closely looking at toy play, Heljakka (2018) explores how three different types of adults (theorists, hobbyists, and every day players) think about and engage with what is known as adult toy play. The author acknowledges that with the advancements in sociotechnological developments such as the rise in the popularity of the Internet and most importantly the growing popularity of social media platforms as playscapes, we are witnessing a gradually strengthening emergence of the once ephemeral phenomenon of adult toy play. (Heljakka 2018). While the adult who engages in play with these toys shies away from acknowledging their activity as actual play, through interviews, Heljakka attempts to open the idea of play to the toy-interested adult who is engaging in activities that are seemingly already playful in nature.

Movie Essays - Comparing the Novel and Film Version of...

Comparing the Novel and Film Version of Joy Luck Club Wayne Wangs adaptation of Amy Tans Joy Luck Club combines literary and cinematic devices by adopting the novels narrative techniques and strengthening them through image and sound. The adaptation exemplifies not a destruction or abuse of Amy Tans novel, but the emergence of a new work of art, not hindered but enhanced by the strengths of its literary precursor. Incorporating her familys own experiences as Chinese immigrants to the United States, Amy Tan tells the story of four Chinese mothers (Suyuan Woo, An-mei Hsu, Lindo Jong, Ying-ying St. Clair) and their American-born daughters (Jing-mei June Woo, Rose Hsu Jordan, Waverly Jong, Lena St. Clair).†¦show more content†¦The largest Chinese community outside Asia, the novels Chinatown - as in reality - blends together elements of the immigrants ancestral homeland with the American way of life. It illustrates the life of dualities many Chinese Americans encounter - two identities, two voices, two cultures, and even two names (Huntley 73). While Amy Tan composes her novel out of distinct narratives, she interweaves the stories by means of recurrent themes and symbols. Having immigrated after the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by Congress, all four women lament the alienation from their daughters who have lost rapport with their mothers and their Chinese heritage by embracing the lifestyle and attitude of the American mainstream culture. In addition to the common themes of immigration and generational conflict, Tan interrelates her stories through the themes of food, dream, and language. Defenders of high culture, such as Hannah Arendt, George Bluestone, and Virginia Woolf, have contended that, in their search for entertainment, adaptations often demand destructive alterations of literature (Boyum, p.7). Yet the need for entertainment does not threaten Tans already captivating Joy Luck Club. The novels easy-flowing, poetic language, along with the explosiveness of the American subject of immigration,Show MoreRelatedLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagessold to students). (3) No Derivative Works You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. An earlier version of the book was published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights to the original author, Bradley Dowden. The current version has been significantly revised. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author would appreciateRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 Pagesfrom exploration and the end of all exploring will be to arrive where we begin and to know the place for the first time.† T. S. Eliot To Ann whose love and support has brought out the best in me. And, to our girls Mary, Rachel, and Tor-Tor for the joy and pride they give me. Finally, to my muse, Neil, for the faith and inspiration he instills. E.W.L Preface Since you are reading this text, you have made a decision that learning more about project management will have a positive impact for youRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesArendt, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay Anke Arnaud, University of Central Florida Mihran Aroian, University of Texas, Austin Gary Ballinger, Purdue University Deborah Balser, University of Missouri at St. Louis Christopher Barlow, DePaul University Joy Benson, University of Wisconsin at Green Bay Lehman Benson III, University of Arizona Jacqui Bergman, Appalachian State University Anne Berthelot, University of Texas at El Paso David Bess, Shidler College of Business at the University of Hawaii BruceRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesConflict 375 SKILL LEARNING 376 Interpersonal Conflict Management 376 Mixed Feelings About Conflict 376 Diagnosing the Type of Interperso nal Conflict 378 Conflict Focus 378 Conflict Source 380 Selecting the Appropriate Conflict Management Approach 383 Comparing Conflict Management and Negotiation Strategies 386 Selection Factors 386 Resolving Interpersonal Confrontations Using the Collaborative Approach A General Framework for Collaborative Problem Solving 391 The Four Phases of Collaborative Problem Solving

My Course Of Social Work Program Essay - 1642 Words

I feel that I would be an excellent addition to your Masters of Social Work program due to my education and experience within the field of Social Work. As you may have noticed, I will have obtained my Bachelors in Psychology degree by May of 2017. While I know that there are many differences between the two field’s I feel that my background in psychology will be an asset and only add to my education within the master’s program at Washburn. While I was in the psychology program, I had the chance to learn about how various mental health issues impact the community, and how psychologists and social workers can work together to help those struggling with mental health issues and with the family members who are caregivers. In addition to my psychology courses I will have taken almost all the courses needed to satisfy my certification in the addictions counseling program by my May graduation date. While my education is, important I feel that experience and putting the skills learned in the classroom to use are important as well. As far as experience is considered I have a lot and it began as early as eight years old. My mother, Linda, decided to go to college and pursue a bachelor’s degree in Social Work at the University of Kansas. Once she obtained that she continued to receive her Master’s in Social Work as well and received high marks from the university. As a child and teenager, she took many opportunities to bring me to school with her and to include me in her studiesShow MoreRelatedThe Vision For My Professional Work After Graduation Essay1636 Words   |  7 PagesThe vision for my professional work after graduation is, to become the best therapist by using the best approaches that are available in the field in order to help people achieve a better mental well-being. I believe I can make a change in the world and in the lives of people by helping one person at a time. I believe that little changes have big impacts in our society. T herefore, having the possibility to help a person navigate through their problems or perhaps help them manage their mental disorders;Read MoreIs Medicine A Life Changing Doctor?880 Words   |  4 PagesGrowing as a girl with a passion to impart my community positively and the world at large, I sought for a profession that is aimed towards my inner desire to best assist individuals in living comfortably, help individuals who are at risk and less capable of assisting themselves, to best reach this self actualization and fulfillment. In support my father got me my fist professional book â€Å"where there is no doctor†. With the high ranking of medicine and the value life showed to be, I believed medicineRead MoreEver since I was a child, I have been drawn to help others less fortunate than myself. Through my1700 Words   |  7 Pagesbeen drawn to help others less fortunate than myself. Through my years of volunteer and educational experiences, I have discovered a passion for h elping children and families. These experiences cemented my resolve to help children thrive in a safe, caring, and nurturing environment. They are the most vulnerable population of people whose rights are often infringed upon due to their inability to speak up for themselves. Becoming a social worker will put me in a position to speak up and advocate forRead MoreGoal Statement1263 Words   |  6 PagesServices Administration My primary goal in applying to Walden University for Ph.D. program is to prepare myself for a future career in forensic human services administration. Interested in furthering the current body of research and in improving techniques used on the study of the theoretical foundations of organizational behavior and the practice of management and planning. I am very committed to pursuing human services administration and I believe Walden University Ph.D. program will provide me withRead MoreWorking With Refugees And Displaced Persons902 Words   |  4 PagesThe bulk of my experience working with refugees and displaced persons comes from my time working in the Kachin Statement of Myanmar. As described above, I did various education and community development work in a serious of refugee and internationally displaced camps (IDP) on the border of China and Myanmar. I have also done work with displaced persons in Morocco when I studied abroad in my internship at a local nonprofit that provide d courses and basic life necessities for displaced persons. FinallyRead MoreGraduate Admissions Personal Statement : How Society And Social Stratification Affects Our Daily Lives1248 Words   |  5 Pagespassionate about how society and social stratification affects our daily lives. I believe these issues are relevant to everyone, in everyday life, and sociology affects everyone on a personal level. When I was an undergraduate student, I had a professor that opened up my mind to the study of sociology. It was at that time, that I decided, I loved the subject so much that I wanted to someday teach it on a post-secondary level. It is a subject that has broadened my horizons, and made me question theRead MoreA Student Of The Bsw Program1546 Words   |  7 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr said, â€Å"There is no greater reward than to make a fundamental difference in someone’s life†. To me, Social work is a profession that involves helping individuals, families and others who need assistance. Knowing that I would someday help people makes me feel happy and fulfilled. I have been a student of the BSW program for some months now and this is the end of the first semester. Throughout these few months, I have grown and learnt more than I thought I would. Although, thereRead MoreThe Field Of Social Work911 Words   |  4 PagesThe field of social work has experienced an increased awareness of the need to advanced in both educational and professional development. I realize that preparation for this career actually includes a great deal of required coursework and hours of field experience. My fieldwork is central to my learning and serves as an integrative experience in which I use what was previously learned in class and apply it to my practice experience. I am currently in a very rewarding field study at the Osborne AssociationRead MoreUniversity s Master Of Social Work Program1252 Words   |  6 PagesFayetteville, North Carolina from Bahama, North Carolina to attend Fayetteville State University’s Master of Social Work Program. Fayetteville, North Carolina’s significant military population and the academic program offered many opportunities to students interested in researching and practicing with military personnel and their families initially generating an interest for me in the program. Within the first twenty-fours of living in Fayetteville, North Carolina, I had the opportunity to experienceRead MorePast, Present, and Future: Personal Statement1827 Words   |  7 Pagesor her program study at their college of choice. In this paper I will go back and give a full reflection on ones development despite the fact looking at the effects of finishing up the degree program of future and current professional objectives. In this paper, I will argue ones interpretations of learning, effects of personal development and growth which do comprise skilled competences and career aims. Furthermore, this paper assesses areas of growth of skill placement of core courses, which contains

A People’s History We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank...

A People’s History: We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God, Slavery Without Submission, Emancipation Without Freedom amp; The Other Civil War Chapter eight discusses the Mexican-American War. Zinn argues that while some people have represented the war as a popular cause, the truth was fairly different. He mentions that President James Polk pushed an expansionist agenda to excuse his conquest of Mà ©xico, and the press supported his actions by lying about the conflict and popular response to it. Zinn argues that soldiers and the public did not like the invasion of Mà ©xico at all. Thousands of soldiers died from disease and desertion. Zinn’s main argument is that the invasion of Mà ©xico was labeled as a defensive action to gain†¦show more content†¦Zinn argues that the U.S. government supported slavery because it was profitable, and when freedom came, it came via organized war rather than rebellion for similar reasons. If slaves had been allowed to rebel, Zinn argues the rebellion might have spread to a generalized class movement. Zinn describes many slave rebellions, abolition movements, the civil war, and also the consequences of these actions on the African American people. Zinn describes the fear that some slaves caused by starting uprisings and rebellions. For example Nat Turners Rebellion where â€Å"Turner, claiming religious visions, gathered about seventy slaves, who went on a rampage from plantation to plantation, murdering at least fifty-five men, women, and children. They gathered supporters, but were captured as their ammunition ran out. Turner and perhaps eighteen others were hanged.† Zinn also talks about the feeling of many of the slaves as they are taken from their families and never seen again. Slavery had destroyed African-American families. At this time many of the Southern slaves were trying to escape to the Union, which brought about the Fugitive Slave Act. â€Å"The Act made it easy for slave owners to recapture ex-slaves or simply to pick up blacks they claimed had run away.† Even after it became illegal to ship slaves to America the slave trade continued. Many people give Abraham Lincoln a lot of credit for freeing the slaves, but inShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesBrier, and Roy Rosenzweig Also in this series: Paula Hamilton and Linda Shopes, eds., Oral History and Public Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M

Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory Of Development - 831 Words

Socio-cultural developmental theory Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development is essential in d primary school and early childhood settings. Through an understanding of the socio-cultural theory, it facilitates pedagogical practices and teaching strategies for educators. The socio-cultural theory is underpinned by the influence of the environment and cultural contexts such as beliefs, values and skills in facilitating development (Mooney 2013, p. 77). Smidt (2009, p. 7) states that children’s understanding of the world and lives is shaped by social interactions from families, peers, educators and community (Nolan Raban-Bisby 2015, p. 31). Vygotsky theorised that interpersonal relationships and experiences contributed to higher†¦show more content†¦77). Using cultural tools is important as children use it in interaction with others and it helps in completion of tasks or achieving objects and acquiring higher mental functions (Bodrova Leong 2001, p. 11). Wetsch 2007 (cited in Henderson Edwa rds 2016, p. 77) states that over time to achieve objects of activity, cultural tools are modified and implemented by children to suit their purpose. However, one of them most important cultural tools is language, as during early childhood language growth is rapid and through dialogue with more knowledgeable others, children can complete tasks (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 322). Henderson and Edwards (2016, p. 77) also states the importance of the adult’s role in acquiring cultural tools as adults have already learnt and used these tools where they share their knowledge of the cultural tools through interactions with children. Within the socio-cultural theory, there is an emphasises on the influence of nurture and the world (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 9), as social interaction is the fundamental concept in child development. The socio-cultural theory does not refer to one course of development, but instead, children’s development processed gradually as there are many courses of development that varied from culture to culture (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 8). In contrast to developmental theorists such as Piaget and Steiner, Vygotsky believed that learning and development occurred in a continuousShow MoreRelatedVygotskys Theory of Sociocultural Development1076 Words   |  5 PagesVygotsky studied the Sociocultural Theory, which had three themes: the social sources of individual thinking, the roles of cultural tools in learning and development, and the zone of proximal development (Driscoll, 2005; Wertsch Tulviste, 1992 as cited in Woolfolk 2013). In other words, Vygotsky believed that the happenings of people occur in cultural settings and cannot be understood outside of these situations. This theory emphasizes the relationship between children and those who are more knowledgeableRead MoreLev Vygotsky And The Sociocultural Theory Of Development1016 Words   |  5 Pagesdeveloped and introduced the Sociocultural Theory of development that was heavily dependent on the influence of environmental factors—such as social groups, cult ure and institutions—on the cognitive development of children. Although Vygotsky constructed his theory during the late 1920s to early 1930s, it did not gain popularity till â€Å"the recent translation and republication of his work into English in 1962† (Burkholder and Pelà ¡ez 2000). The development of Vygotsky’s theory was also heavily influencedRead MoreEssay on Lev Vygotsky and Social Development Theory1038 Words   |  5 Pagescreated the Social Development Theory/ Sociocultural Theory. Vygotsky believed that childrens mental, language, and social development is supported and enhanced through social interaction. Vygotsky also believed that beginning at birth, children seek out adults for social interactions and that development occurs through these interactions. The belief that social development sets a precedent for development(appeals to the nurture side of development). The general idea from this theory is that being awareRead MoreThe Sociocultural Th eory Essay1710 Words   |  7 Pages The sociocultural theory was developed by a theorist named Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was born in 1896 and was from the former Soviet Union. He was a psychologist who had an abundance of ideas and put them into many theories and writings. Although Vygotsky died from tuberculosis at the young age of thirty-eight, his most prominent work was done in a short period of ten years. When he died in 1934, the Soviet Union held most of his work and it was not until about 1960 that his work was translated intoRead MoreThe Theory Of Cognitive Development1025 Words   |  5 PagesMany philosophers have developed theories of how individuals learn over the decades. As an individual progresses through life from childhood to adulthood, the manner in which they take in knowledge, and mature is the basic theory of cognitive development. Cognitive development can be described as how an individual’s thought process develops, and how these thought processes impa ct how an individual comprehends and interacts in the world. The psychology theorists of the past have shaped the classroomsRead MoreVygotsky s Theory Of Human Development1386 Words   |  6 PagesVygotsky was an educator and a theorist known primarily for his sociocultural theory. 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As a teacher I have grown to learn that Vygotsky’s findings are true in so many ways. Just from watching the children in my classroom I see that the Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding play a huge part in the development of a child. Read MoreVygotsky And Constructivism Theory729 Words   |  3 PagesConstructivism theory is basically used to define how learners gain knowledge from their past experience or from prior knowledge. For example, even in the childhood the child is not in the blank state they grasp knowledge by the expressions and images. Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who has given socio-cultural approach to cognitive development. He wrote two famous books â€Å"Thought and Language† and â€Å"The Development of Higher Psychological Process†. Vygotsky’s theory is based on social-cultural

Lights On, Lights Off free essay sample

The door stood slightly ajar. Inside, two hearts were beating rapidly in rhythmic unison as if a snare drum was being repeatedly tapped. The rest of the house remained silent, except for some sobs coming from the corner. She heard the words being yelled back and forth as loneliness consumed her and darkness shadowed her thoughts. When she opened her eyes, her mother was in her face calling for attention. She muttered five words that would live with her daughter forever, â€Å"Your dad’s leaving, say goodbye.† All went quiet, except for the screaming inside her. **** â€Å"Happiness can be found in the darkest of times, when one only remembers to turn on the light.† A profound quote spoken by one of the characters in the all-too famous Harry Potter series captures the essence of happiness like a child captures fireflies in a jar on a summer night. Happiness can be found in the simplest of places: late night conversations with a sister, encouraging pats on the back from friends, and the loving embrace of both mother and father. We will write a custom essay sample on Lights On, Lights Off or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page But what happens when happiness cannot be found in these dark and difficult times and family becomes a burden all its own? Happiness has always been my nature, and optimism, my best attribute. When you grow up with a loving family, great friends, and a willingness to learn, life doesn’t seem so scary, but this past summer life became difficult and happiness grew dim. I remember growing up thinking I had the perfect family, that WE were the exception. Most of my friends came from broken homes which wasn’t a big deal to them because they were used to it, but I had never experienced it before and so, I fell apart. Little did I know we were not the exception; we were the same as any other family, just a bit delayed. My parents, a loving couple, had been together for 27 years, but two kids and almost three decades later, the foundation began to crumble. Whilst my parents fought, I was usually an emotional wreck, while my sister sulked and built up a facade: stoic and uncaring. But the fights subsided and became my last memory of my parents together when my mother decided to kick him out for goo d. He didn’t seem to care anymore and she cared just a little too much. As the weeks wore on, I was â€Å"caught between enemy lines.† I was my mother’s make-shift therapist, someone she could unload all her troubles on for nothing in return. And for my dad, I was the messenger, someone to poke and prod in order to unravel the secrets. It was an unhealthy back-and-forth game between the two of them and I was the pawn they both used in their tactic to win. With loneliness constantly crawling up my spine, I began to shut myself away from the world as my sister had done. Since she was the only mature adult in this situation, I looked to her for guidance, but deep down, I knew she felt the same. We kept each other sane by watching movies and talking together, but it still was no easy situation to get through. And when my father finally packed his stuff, the separation between my parents finally hit me like a ton of bricks. Deep down I was desperate; I begged him to stay and I begged my mother to let him, but it wasn’t good enough. My once happy family was now falling apart and the pieces would be left untouched. The loving relationship between my parents became a heap of severed ties and broken promises. And the relationship I had with each parent became a little sour because of the separation, but my sister and I bonded over this difficult experience. With no happiness left in my house, I had to make the best of it. I did my daily tasks, acted happy around my family, and told everyone I was okay. In reality, I was suffering from the worst pain ever experienced, surpassing any physical pain I had ever felt in my seventeen years of living. More weeks passed and the initial shock wore off; I slowly began to understand what had gone wrong and what I had to do in order to fix myself, and not worry about anyone else. I realized that I was unhappy, alone, and in the dark throughout this whole process, but with the love and advice from my sister, the encouraging pats on the back from friends and the loving embrace of both mother and father separately, I began to heal. As time passed by quietly and undetected, I began to become accustomed to the arrangement my parents had set up, but I would still cry here and there. I focused on excelling in school; I joined more clubs – my favorite being The 2010 School Yearbook –and completely engrossed myself in books, movies, and friends†¦ too busy to focus on the things that had transpired the previous summer. As weeks turned to months, I felt better about myself and felt the pangs in my heart hurt a little less; I realized that it was their problem to work out or gi ve up on, and that they both still loved me equally in the end. Also, I realized that I should just keep doing what I’m doing and hope for a better future. And so, with a flick of a switch, I turned on the light that had grown dim when my parents separated. Happiness was partially restored and my balance was regained for a little while. With a surge of power and a jolt of electricity, the light was coming back on in my life, slowly but surely.

Performance Management of Human Resources†MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about thePerformance Management of Human Resources. Answer: Introduction Human resource management is an approach that allows business organisations in managing their workforce in the best possible manner. Human resource management was founded during the industrial revolution and has greatly evolved over the past few years. Using human resource management, business organisations can optimise the performance level of their workforce as it helps in designing and implementing practices like performance management, training and development, career development, recruitment and selection, etc. (Armstrong Taylor, 2014) The basic aim of the approach is to increase the performance of the employees by fostering a positive workplace environment and by establishing stronger relations between employees and employers (Hendry, 2012). This report has been aimed at studying the implications that the usage of smartphone applications for manging work life balance will have on the employees, human resource management and the managers. Work Life Balance Work life balance is defined as a balance that the employees are able to maintain between their work lives and personal lives. In the modern day business world, organisations are relying heavily upon their human resources as a way of achieving market competencies. it has become very difficult for them to achieve market competencies on the basis of processes and operations as they are easily replicable (Perrons, 2017). The reliability of the employers on the employees increases their expectations from the employees and the employees are expected to perform better and show higher commitment towards their organisations. In their attempt to fulfil the expectations of the employers, the employees are losing a balance between their personal lives and work lives, which is increasing the level of stress amongst the employees and is also causing health related issues (Zilca, 2017). Therefore, the concept of work life balance has emerged in the past few decades and is shaping the workplace env ironment in a great way. It is becoming one of the best ways to attract and retain talented employees and enhance workforce performance for a lot of companies. Smartphone Applications Technology has proven itself to be the greatest gift to the mankind. Technological innovations have been shaping the life of the human beings and is bringing about a lot changes in the day-to-day life of the human beings. One such invention of technology has been the smartphone applications. A decade ago, internet and the world wide web was considered to be the future and the biggest thing that was ever possible. The thinking of the global population changes when smartphone applications were developed as they could do much more than the world wide web and that too from devices that can fit into a small pocket (Poland, n.d.). Smartphone applications have also found their usage in the business world. A number of multinational companies have started incorporating smartphone applications in managing their human resources and various other operations. In the past few years, smartphone applications have been easing the work for human resource managers as well as for the employees, who are using it to manage their time so that they can have a healthier work life balance. Importance of Work Life Balance Before getting further into the topic, it is important to discuss the importance of having a healthy work life balance from the employers as well as an employees perspective. The importance of work life balance is discussed below: The first and the most important benefit of ensuring a healthier work life balance for the employees is that the workforce becomes less susceptible to burnouts and stress. If a workforce is not being able to maintain a healthy balance between their work lives and personal lives, they can become stressed and will not only experience a drop in their performance levels but will also experience health issues (Australian Institute of Business, 2015). Secondly, helping the employees in maintaining a healthier work life balance can allow business organisations in fostering a positive image in the market and in becoming an employer of choice. Business organisations that help their employees in maintaining a healthier work life balance are also able to bring down the employee turnover rates because the employees are less stressed and are able to concentrate more on their work as well as take out time for their personal lives (Boundless, n.d.). Thirdly, employees that are not being able to maintain a healthy work life balance have been found to be more prone to health related issues. The inability of the employees to manage their personal lives and work lives makes them more stresses and become more prone to heart diseases, digestive and respiratory problems. As a result, employees become dissatisfied with their jobs and show more absenteeism due to health related issues. Ultimately, the companies have to bear the loss of productivity and profitability. Lastly, if employees have a healthy work life balance, they have been found to be more satisfied with their jobs, committed towards their work and the organisation, creative and are also able to perform better, which is a huge plus point for the employers as well as for the employees. Implications for Employees Smartphone applications are changing the way in which employers and employees work. There are millions of applications available in different mobile stores, which can help employees in managing their time in such a way that they are able to maintain a healthier work life balance. For example, there is an application that can allow the employees to set a monthly expenditure limit on their accounts by attaching their credit or debit cards. Similarly, there are applications that can track the usage of the user and can set working patterns and provide suggestions for better time management (Prokopets, n.d.). Some implications of using smartphone applications to manage work life (for the employees) are discussed below: First of all, to use smartphone applications in order to achieve a healthier work life balance, the employees will have to increase their knowledge in the field of technology and internet. Smartphone applications cannot work on traditional mobile phones and also require an internet connection to carry out the task that they are intended to. To be able to use these applications, the employees will have to learn how to operate a smartphone and use internet. Furthermore, the employees will also have to ensure that the data or information that they are sharing in the application is secure and cannot be used by any outside entity for miscellaneous purposes. Secondly, using smartphone applications will actually have a positive impact on the work life balance of the employees. Using applications, which can help the employees in time management, and allowing them to stay connected with their friends, family as well as their work can greatly help them in managing their work lives as well as their personal lives side by side. Further, applications can also save a lot of efforts and resources of the employees. For example, using smartphone applications, employees can attend meetings in a video conference call and will not have to waste time in travelling from one place to another just to attend an important meeting. Similarly, the employees can also finish a small portion of their jobs using smartphone applications like MS Word, even while they are on the move or away from the work. Ultimately, smartphone applications can help the employees in managing their work even from their home in case they are experiencing an emergency and cannot trave l to the office because of personal reasons. Thirdly, becoming more comfortable with applications and latest technology will also help the employees in increasing their competencies and opening up growth opportunities for the future. Employees, who will be able to use technology and incorporate smartphone applications in their day-to-day life for making their work easier, will always be able to discover new things that can make it easier for them to perform their job duties and responsibilities (Higuera, n.d.). As a result, the performance levels of the employees will increase and they will be able to make greater contributions towards the fulfilment of organisational goals and objectives. Lastly, usage of smartphone applications can also have a negative impact on the work life balance of the employees. Smartphone applications can exponentially enhance reachability and connectivity of a person and an employee might get frequently notified by calls or mails about something important related to the work (Hamlett, n.d.). As a result, the work lives and the personal lives of the employees can sometimes jumble up and can have a negative effect on their work life balance. Implications for Human Resource Management Human resource management was started back in the industrial revolution and has greatly evolved since then. New technological inventions and human resource management systems have been changing the way in which the business organisations throughout the world manage their workforce. The usage of smartphone applications for the purpose of fostering a healthier work life balance will definitely have a number of implications for the human resource management too. The implications for human resource management are discussed below: First of all, management of human resources will become easier because of smartphone applications. Smartphone applications will provide a better communication channel for the human resource managers to communicate with the employees. They will be able to communicate with the employees in a better way and inform them about their work related stuff. Therefore, usage of smartphone applications can make management and sharing of information easier. Secondly, human resource management departments will be able to carry out some of their non-core functions more effectively. One of the most important non-core functions of a human resource managerial departments is to ensure employee retention or to bring down employee turnover rates. Human resource managers can make use of smartphone applications along with wearable fitness devices to assess the stress levels of the employees (Fritz, Huang, Murphy, Zimmermann, 2014). Using such technology, the human resource managers will be able to recognize those employees who are experiencing high stress levels at work and are demonstrating low performance levels because of it. As a result, they will be able to arrange counselling sessions for them and will be able to retain them by improving the work conditions for them. Thirdly, human resource management departments will have to become careful and ensure that the smartphone applications that the employees as well as the employers use for helping the employees in maintaining a healthier work life balance are secure and cannot compromise their work related data, making it possible for outside entities to access it and make use of it. An organisation is vulnerable to information and data theft and a negligence on the part of the employees or the management in using the applications can cause some serious implications for the human resource management departments as well as for the employers. Lastly, the excessive and positive use of smartphone applications will also offer now opportunities to the human resource managers. Smartphone applications have a great future and developers can develop almost every kind of an application that can cater do different organisational needs and can perform a variety of functions. Human resource management can become more effective and efficient by using smartphone applications that can help them in establishing better communication channels with the employees, inform them about their shifts, manage time, schedules, payrolls, etc. (Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association, 2007) Thus, human resource managers will be able to achieve their objectives and goals in a better way if they start using smartphone applications. Implications for Leaders and Managers The concept of using smartphone applications is not just beneficial for employees and employers, but will also be beneficial for leaders and managers of an organisation. The implications of using smartphone applications for managing work life balance for the leaders and managers of an organisation are discussed below: First of all, using smartphone applications for managing work shifts and schedules of the employees will allow the managers to exercise a better control over their entire staff. Not only the employees but even the managers can use smartphone applications to keep a record of employee shift timings, work schedules, important upcoming events and meetings and keep a track of employee leaves. With all this information available, it will become easier for the mangers and the leaders to manage the staff working under them and help them in maintaining a healthier balance between their personal lives and work lives. Secondly, people working at the leader or managerial positions are responsible for the wellbeing of their workforce and to keep them motivated. Using smartphone applications that are aimed at managing stress levels amongst the users, it will become easier for the managers to identify those employees who have been experiencing high stress levels at the workplace. The managers can then consult these employees and can talk them out of their problems and offer them assistance in case the cause of the stress is an improper balance between their work lives and personal lives. Further, helping the employees in maintaining a balance between their work lives and personal lives will also allow the managers in keeping them motivated as they will become more focused towards the work and committed towards their job and organisation (Rodrigues, 2011). Thirdly, a major implication of excess use of smartphone applications in the workplace for the management of employee work schedules and time will make it imperative for the leaders and the managers to undergo specialised training and development programs that will be helpful for them in learning all the technicalities of a smartphone applications and how it can be used in different fields to manage different employee management functions. Fourthly, leaders and managers of business organisations might lose their share of work life balance because it might get difficult for them to manage the employees using complicated technological solutions. Using smartphone applications for managing the employees can involve a lot of time from a managers or a leaders perspective and they might find it difficult to maintain their own work life balance. As a result, an added responsibility might not be well perceived by them and they might become dissatisfied with their jobs. Conclusion Smartphone applications are the biggest technological inventions in the present day and are shaping the future of the business world. The use of smartphone applications in maintaining a healthier work life balance is a new concept that is being accepted by a number of business organisations and is proving to be of a great benefit for the employees as well as for the employers. Maintaining a healthy work life balance is of a great importance in the present day business world because it can have a number of positive impacts on the overall performance and profitability of a company. Therefore, business organisations should shift their focus towards smartphone applications as an approach that can help them in helping the employees in maintaining a healthier balance between their work lives and personal lives. Bibliography Hendry, C. (2012). Human Resource Management. Routledge. Armstrong, M., Taylor, S. (2014). Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers. Zilca, R. (2017, March 9). If You Want to Be Happy at Work, Have a Life Outside of It. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from hbr.org: https://hbr.org/2017/03/if-you-want-to-be-happy-at-work-have-a-life-outside-of-it Perrons, D. (2017, March 6). WorkLife Balance . The International Encyclopedia of Geography. Poland, A. (n.d.). Uses of Smartphone Applications. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from itstillworks.com: https://itstillworks.com/uses-smartphone-applications-13119.html Boundless. (n.d.). The Importance of Work-Life Balance . Retrieved May 29, 2017, from www.boundless.com: https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/human-resource-management-7/current-topics-in-human-resource-management-60/the-importance-of-work-life-balance-303-7294/ Australian Institute of Business. (2015, July 23). 3 Reasons Why Work Life Balance Is Important. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from aib.edu.au: https://aib.edu.au/blog/work-life-balance-is-important/ Prokopets, E. (n.d.). 14 Smart Apps To Improve Your Work/Life Balance. Retrieved May 30, 2017, from www.lifehack.org: https://www.lifehack.org/275194/14-smart-apps-improve-your-worklife-balance Higuera, V. (n.d.). What Are Some Positive Negative Technology Training Impacts on an Employee? . Retrieved May 30, 2017, from smallbusiness.chron.com: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/positive-negative-technology-training-impacts-employee-37082.html Hamlett, C. (n.d.). The Adverse Effects of Technology in the Workplace . Retrieved May 30, 2017, from smallbusiness.chron.com: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/adverse-effects-technology-workplace-22649.html Fritz, T., Huang, E. M., Murphy, G. C., Zimmermann, T. (2014). Persuasive technology in the real world: a study of long-term use of activity sensing devices for fitness . Retrieved from dl.acm.org: https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2557383 Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association. (2007, June). The Impact of the Mobile Phone on Work/Life Balance . Retrieved from www.kiwanja.net: https://www.kiwanja.net/database/document/report_mobiles_work_life.pdf Rodrigues, A. (2011, December). The perceived impacts of smartphone use on the performance of senior managers in South African firms. Retrieved May 30, 2017, from citeseerx.ist.psu.edu: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.464.4316rep=rep1type=pdf

War And Society Essays - Culture, Structure, Cultural Studies

War And Society Keeleys is attempting to prove that primitive warfare throughout history has been effective and occasionally more successful than civilized methods. Throughout Chapter five of War Before Civilization, evidence is displayed showing the different success rates of primitive warfare compared to its civilized counterpart. Two examples that offer proof to Keeleys theory are: 1. Julius Caesars Roman legion was incapable of conquering England, which was defended by the undisciplined, barbarian hosts of Celts and Germans. Raids and ambush tactics demonstrated by the barbarians deferred a Roman triumph for a century. (A.D.9.) (Pg.72) 2. During the Battle of Little Big Horn, two hundred U.S. soldiers led by Colonel Custer were ambushed and defeated by one thousand and eight hundred Sioux and Cheyenne warriors. (1866) (Pg.73) Certainly, aspects of primitive warfare have had high success rates throughout war and history, yet the majority of Keelys examples are only of individual battles. The majority of Primitive societies lack the required population, food, and artillery to win the war. Attempting to differentiate the success rate of primitive and civilized warfare is an unattainable task. While particular historical battles have proved the effectiveness of uncivilized warfare, economic and social resources should be considered in every individual case. Keelys illustrations and examples of past war patterns disprove the myth that primitive societies will always be defeated by civilized armies in time of war. Proving primitive effectiveness is clearly Keelys aspiration in Chapter Five. (Pg.71) Keelys various examples from different centuries demonstrate that primitive warfare has occasionally been victorious in opposition to civilized societies. History Essays

Sample Topics For An Argumentative Essay

Sample Topics For An Argumentative EssayWhen you are writing an argumentative essay you need to know that there are several sample topics for an argumentative essay you can choose from. These topics help you think about the key points that you will be making in your argument. However, not all of them are easy to use.If you are going to write a research paper or an essay that has a particular topic to it, you need to understand this fact. You will be writing an argumentative essay. Theses are written to defend your opinion or views and you will need to think about the way you will give it to the reader. Therefore, you need to know about the examples of how people do write arguments in these cases.These arguments are written to defend or support a point of view. Therefore, you should know that the sample topics for an argumentative essay will be easier than what your own argument will be. However, if you have trouble coming up with samples to use then you should look online for these s amples. The Internet is where you will find many different writers who offer their opinions about topics and writing. You can read other's arguments and see the examples that they use.You should also pay attention to how a particular writer makes his or her introduction or argument before he or she starts with a section of the entire piece. This will help you know which way to go. Many times you will find that they do not talk about the topic at all. They will talk about why they wrote the argumentative essay in the first place.Often you will find that writers will argue about whether they will talk about a specific topic or not. There are those who do not want to talk about a topic at all and will not use the sample topics for an argumentative essay. Youwill need to make sure that you know which way you want to go.Most of the time, when you are writing a research paper or an essay that has a specific topic to it, you should know how to discuss and support your main points. You shou ld know what is important to you. You should also know how to make a strong argument. However, you should not be worried about how you will come up with arguments.It is very easy to come up with arguments when you are not thinking about how you will present your arguments. You should know that you can do this on your own. However, it may take some time to get used to the idea of having an argumentative essay.There are some writers who will try to argue with you, or they will make you feel as if you are not good enough for this style of writing. You will want to be sure that you know how to handle these situations. You will also want to be sure that you know what to say when someone tries to argue with you. You will need to keep yourself from arguing back. Your entire point of writing a research paper or an essay that has a specific topic to it is to be able to defend your opinion or view.

The Ante-Bellum Background The WritePass Journal

The Ante-Bellum Background The Ante-Bellum Background IntroductionThe Early Reconstruction EraChapter oneThe Foundations of African-American EducationIndependent African-American SchoolhousesChapter TwoChapter ThreeConclusionRelated Introduction Prior to the American Civil War, 1861-1865, a system of state education did not exist in the Confederate South. Taxation to subsidise public schooling had not yet been introduced and education remained localised to affluent white communities.  Within Georgia, as throughout the South, schools were privately organised and sustained.  In 1858, however, Governor Brown secured the passage of law to establish a common school system in Georgia, which intended to provide tuition for every white child in the state.  This law was never enacted and instead collapsed with the defeat of the Confederacy. Nevertheless, Brown’s proposed legislation remains significant for its characterisation of contemporary Southern white attitudes; black education held no interest to the state. In a society structured upon African-American slavery, this is unsurprising. Indeed, state legislation prohibited the instruction of African-Americans throughout the South, and Georgia was no exception.  In 1833, a Georgia law secured the punishment of any person, by fine or imprisonment, discovered to be teaching any ‘slave, negro or free person of colour. Despite these proscriptions, the enslaved and free African-American community alike yearned for knowledge; a craving that strengthened during the post-bellum Reconstruction period.  This desire was not only motivated by the importance of education to racial progress, but also the realisation that knowledge equated to power.  African-Americans anticipated that attaining an education meant ‘seizing a weapon’  which could challenge the established racial hierarchy. Education symbolised equality. The Early Reconstruction Era In December 1864, Georgia surrendered to the Union. Defeat secured freedom for the formerly enslaved and likewise liberated African-Americans from restrictive legislation preventing their instruction. The emancipation of Georgia’s slaves was subsequently reinforced by the Thirteenth Amendment, 1865, formally abolishing the institution of servitude throughout the South.  In the Reconstruction period, however, African-Americans in Georgia, and the South as a whole, were confronted with crisis regarding their desire for education. The black community lacked existing formal schooling and racial prejudice prevented African-Americans attending the educational institutions of white society. Moreover, war destroyed the Southern landscape and Georgia itself was ‘exhausted and clubbed to her knees.’  Ã‚  The destruction of both towns and plantations resulted in widespread poverty. This economic hardship was intensified among the newly emancipated population, who, with a lack of state support, were forced to fend for themselves. Nevertheless, despite this destitution, African-American schooling encompassed Georgia within a year of surrender, a trend representative of the entire South. Previous historiography has adopted varying approaches to this movement, attributing its emergence to differing factors. Of particular interest to historians preceding the 1980s was the role of Northern whites: the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands (the Freedmen’s Bureau) and Northern benevolent associations.  Peirce, for example, argues the Freedmen’s Bureau ‘inaugurated the system of [black] instruction’  by providing an infrastructure to coordinate the efforts of philanthropic associations and monetary contributions. Furthermore, previous scholarship emphasises the role of the Bureau in conjunction with benevolent associations, asserting black education was a ‘cooperative venture.’  Similarly to the Bureau, Northern aid societies donated material aid and, additionally, transported qualified teachers to the South. With reference to Georgia, Thompson argues African-American education originated from, and was maintained by, the combined resources which Northern whites were able to accumulate. Fundamentally, ‘the education of negroes was left to the Freedmen’s Bureau and Northern philanthropy.’ Implicit within both these perspectives is the assumption that education was bestowed upon African-Americans, who displayed little initiative towards their own schooling. Indeed, Bentley’s A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau (1955) judged the freedpeople’s response as ‘piteous.’  Primary evidence, however, contradicts this scholarship. Various sources suggest black communities provided valuable support to the educational movement; financial donations, despite poverty, are regularly recorded.  Numerous scholars pre-dating the 1980s were therefore consciously selective in their use of evidence by devaluing, or dismissing, the role of African-Americans, preferring to emphasise the role of Northern whites. This perspective can be ascribed to contextual influences. In the late-1960s and early-1970s, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum in America. Arguably, this changing social history may have subconsciously impacted upon written history; racial prejudice perhaps obscured personal judgement. Developing this conservative approach, historians of the 1980s and early-1990s recognise the educational movement involved, to an extent, African-Americans themselves. Whilst scholarship of this decade likewise attributes the emergence of black education to Northern whites, it also acknowledges African-Americans ‘seized opportunities offered’  to them and made important contributions of their own. Holt argues freedpeople of North Carolina exploited the household economy to assist the maintenance of schoolhouses erected by the Bureau.  Similarly, Cimbala emphasises the significance of African-American financial contributions within Georgia; a necessity to supplement Northern funds.  Furthermore, Butchart notes that as Northern financial assistance dwindled in 1869 due to lack of funds, African-Americans throughout the South adopted the dual responsibility of financing and operating schools. Whilst these scholars appreciate African-American education was a joint enterprise, whereby the black community worked in co-operation with Northern whites, only recent research suggests the educational movement originated from ‘black impetus.’  Modern scholarship has gradually credited the inauguration of African-American education to the African-American community. This conclusion has been applied in particular to Maryland and South Carolina, both of which have been utilised as case-studies generalising the broader movement of the South. Convincingly, Jenkins argues African-Americans of South Carolina educated themselves during the early Reconstruction period; a self-sufficient movement which continued their concealed efforts during the era of slavery.  Similarly, Fuke concludes African-American schooling in Maryland derived from the grassroots of the African-American community. Consequently, Northern whites operated as catalysts within an educational movement crea ted by black society; the Bureau facilitated the ‘expansion’  of black schooling through the creation of additional schoolhouses and Northern philanthropists enhanced the quality of tuition. This dissertation intends to ascertain how far these arguments can be applied to Georgia, assessing whether the conclusions determined by Jenkins and Fuke correspond with the experiences of other Southern states. Each chapter will address the educational contributions of a specific group: African-Americans, the Freedmen’s Bureau and Northern benevolent associations. Within this structure, rural areas will be compared to their urban counterparts, primarily the city of Savannah. Accordingly, this will enable me to determine to what extent African-American education derived from black impetus throughout differing areas of Georgia. In establishing how far formal African-American schooling was motivated by the black community in Reconstruction Georgia, educational archives of the Bureau will provide a primary body of evidence. These records, dating from 1865-1870, consist of statistical data and school reports compiled by the Bureau, as well as letters received and sent by the agency. For Georgia, there are 15 microfilm rolls of correspondence, each containing 200-300 items. Moreover, a further 12 rolls comprise of accounting records and school reports composed by teachers and Bureau agents. To gain a sense of contemporary proceedings from such a vast source, I sampled approximately five letters and school reports per month from Savannah and varying rural counties of the state. Whereas archives of the Bureau are easily attainable, records of benevolent associations are comparatively limited. Documentation of the American Missionary Association (AMA) is stored within America, and the restricted material available online does not relate to Georgia. Consequently, the dissertation will instead utilise letters received by the Bureau from the AMA, alongside primary references within secondary material. Chapter one African-American Schooling in the Early Reconstruction Period: 1865-1870 Despite impoverishment confronting Georgia after defeat in the Civil War, formal African-American schooling encompassed the state during the early Reconstruction period. By January 1870, 194 African-American schools regularly reported to the Bureau, and a further 105 schoolhouses were believed to exist.  These schools served over 8,000 pupils throughout Georgia.  Traditional historiography attributes the inauguration of this educational movement to the Freedmen’s Bureau and Northern philanthropic organisations. Indeed, Northern white intervention commenced relatively early following Georgia’s surrender. Whilst the original Freedmen’s Bureau Act, March 1865, did not contain provisions for African-American education (Congress failed to appropriate finance for this purpose until July 1866), informal Bureau activity within Georgia began in the winter of 1865.  However, devoid of Congressional support, Georgia’s officials lacked monetary reserves and were restricted to exploiting their limited resources; abandoned property under Bureau control.  Nevertheless, the Bureau capitalised on the supplies it did possess and its earliest contribution can be dated to mid-November, 1865, when Davis Tillson, the state’s second assistant commissioner, authorised derelict buildings in Savannah to be utilised as African-American schools. Similarly, philanthropic associations instigated their benevolence within Georgia in the latter months of 1865. The AMA initially transported qualified Northern teachers to the state in , and NEFAS dispatched its first instructors in November.  By December 1865, these aid societies had established African-American schoolhouses in Savannah, Augusta, Atlanta, and Columbus. However, whilst Northern white activities commenced promptly in Reconstruction Georgia, the origins of formal African-American schooling cannot be attributed to these efforts, as previous scholarship suggests.  Arguably, African-American education derived from the grassroots of black society. In the summer of 1865, months following Georgia’s defeat, and months prior to Northern white intervention, Alvord embarked upon an exploration of the South. Concluding this tour, Alvord estimated 79 black schoolhouses were already established in Georgia, illustrating that African-American schooling was inaugurated independently.  This development accords with the conclusions determined by Jenkins and Fuke. The Foundations of African-American Education The origins of African-American education in post-bellum Georgia, then, can be attributed to black society. The foundations of this movement derive, ironically, from the era preceding the Civil War. Despite legislation prohibiting instruction of African-Americans, a considerable number had acquired a clandestine education. Subsequent to Confederate defeat, members of Georgia’s black community who already possessed understanding of reading and writing became educators of the race.  Accordingly, the introduction of formal African-American schooling in Reconstruction Georgia was, as argued by Jenkins for South Carolina, a ‘continuation of the†¦efforts under slavery.’ In spite of restrictive legislation, many African-Americans in Georgia obtained literary skills before 1860. This learning process occurred, however, primarily within urban areas, whereby a more diverse environment than rural districts allowed differing opportunities to acquire education. Surprisingly, in a society characterised by white superiority, some slaves were instructed by their masters or his family. Regardless of potential prosecution, Savannah whites, on occasion, dismissed state laws forbidding the tuition of African-Americans. Domestic slaves, in particular, benefitted from this compassion. ‘Uncle Reuben’ of Savannah, owned by a master possessing few slaves, was rewarded for his loyalty and educated by the family. However, the majority concealed their learning from white society, instead attaining tuition surreptitiously from fellow African-Americans. As black ministers were literate, churches within pre-bellum Savannah were employed as secret institutions of education.  Consequently, Sundays proved a significant day for black tuition; whilst white society attended white churches, slaves with travel-passes, alongside their free counterparts, exploited African-American churches where, in addition to religious instruction, ministers often bestowed the rudiments of literacy.  Reverend J. Simms, for example, a former slave who purchased freedom, educated African-Americans, slave and free alike, within his Savannah church until 1861. Furthermore, free African-Americans of Savannah likewise obtained a clandestine education within a secular context, further disregarding state prohibitions. Unlike the urban enslaved, fettered by servitude, free African-Americans attended black schoolhouses operating covertly throughout the city. Mrs Deveaux, a free African-American, secretly taught from 1830 until the end of the Civil War.  This institution remained invisible to white society, successfully educating members of Savannah’s black community. Similarly, Susie King Taylor provides evidence of such surreptitious tuition. Unlike most slaves, Taylor, aged seven, was granted freedom by her master and subsequently lived with her free Grandmother in Savannah.  Consequently, Susie acquired an education. Each day, Taylor attended a secret school organised within the home of Mrs Woodhouse, a free African-American.  To avoid arousing suspicion within the white community, Taylor’s schoolbooks were disguised and Mrs Woodhouse’s 25 pupils each entered and departed the property individually.  Within two years, Mrs Woodhouse had taught Taylor ‘all she knew.’ Moreover, Lucy and Sarah Chase, white NEFAS educators transported to Savannah, December 1865, support the existence of covert schoolhouses in their account published in the Worcester Evening Gazette; ‘[they] would have schools, under the old regime†¦in spite of the laws.’  Specifically, the Chase sisters describe a free African-American male who operated a pre-bellum ‘secret school’  in his Savannah residence. Following this tutoring, pupils frequently continued their studies at home, concealing their activities from white society. Evidence therefore suggests a number of African-Americans in Savannah acquired understanding of reading and writing prior to the Civil War, undermining legislation intended to prohibit such academic advancement. Contrastingly, opportunities for clandestine instruction in rural Georgia were limited; tense race relations and the isolated nature of the environment resulted in fewer means to obtain education. Under slavery, cotton cultivation dominated rural Georgia and the economic livelihood of whites depended upon African-American labour.  Consequently, race relations were strained. Planters perceived African-Americans in terms of their property value and financial concerns ‘superseded the consideration of slaves.’  Thus, masters refused to instruct slaves for fear the educated worker could destabilise the established hierarchy, resulting in slave rebellion and economic loss.  J.H. Dent, a slaveholder in Northern rural Georgia, commented ‘one great error is to†¦enlighten the Negro. In doing so, you†¦arouse his suspicions.’  Accordingly, few slaves, if any, acquired education from their master. George Womble, a former slave of Clinton, Georgia, emphasises this difficulty in achieving literacy, recalling the enslaved on his plantation were ‘never given the chance to learn to read or write.’ Furthermore, whereas churches provided alternative sources of education for urban slaves, they remained wholly religious to rural slaves. Whilst given opportunities to attend sermons by their masters, the rural enslaved were largely preached to by white ministers.  According to James Bolton, a slave of Oglethorpe County, ‘they weren’t no church for niggers on our plantation†¦we went to the white folkses church and listened to white preachers.’  Likewise, Womble was required to attend his master’s church, receiving the Sunday service of a white minister. Occasionally, however, white churches permitted rural slaves to be ministered by African-American preachers.  Nevertheless, such sermons remained subject to white supervision, preventing the surreptitious schooling which occurred within urban black churches. Plantation slave William Ward commented the local black pastor was overseen by his master, with the sermon ‘always built according to the master’s instructions†¦reminding slaves they†¦must lead a life of loyal servitude.’  Consequently, as slaves were addressed by white ministers, or by black preachers under the direction of their masters, churches within rural Georgia rarely provided slaves with academic education. Nevertheless, despite evident efforts of plantation owners to keep slaves uneducated, African-Americans sometimes exploited younger members of their master’s family.  The account of Womble refers to the neighbouring plantation where slave boys transported books of the master’s children to and from school, simultaneously receiving instruction upon how to write.  Thus, despite prohibitive legislation and the resolve of white society, some slaves, albeit the fortunate minority, acquired a degree of literacy in rural ante-bellum Georgia. Similarly, free rural African-Americans struggled to obtain the rudiments of literacy; evidence of covert instruction within private residences is rare. This lack of evidence can be attributed to the lower free black population in rural regions. As illustrated by Table 1, the number of free blacks in Chatham County, where Savannah is located, was significantly higher than rural counties preceding the Civil War.  Consequently, free African-Americans were more sporadic in the countryside, resulting in fewer literate individuals from whom fellow African-Americans could acquire tuition. Nevertheless, one cannot dismiss such secret instruction occurred. Furthermore, little evidence suggests clandestine schooling occurred within rural black churches of Georgia. Owing to their dispersed population, free rural blacks were unable to create a strong community and, consequentially, only a ‘handful’  of African-American churches were erected in each rural county; in Dougherty County, a single black church existed.  Whilst these institutions were ministered by black preachers, only some were independent of white society. Frances Kemble, a Northern white traveller, reported, although free African-Americans possessed their own Baptist church in Darien, ‘a gentleman officiated in it (of course, white).’  Accordingly, white supervision prevented such churches being utilised as secret schoolhouses. However, in those African-American churches which, similarly to their urban counterparts, remained autonomous, one can speculate black ministers served as academic teachers. Indeed, surreptitious instruction in rural Georgia must have occurred; Russel Noah, a free African-American of Madison, as later explained, developed literary skills in the pre-bellum era and became a teacher in the Reconstruction period.  However, due to the sporadic locations of independent churches, such clandestine tuition could only have benefitted a minority of each rural county’s free black population. Thus, compared to Savannah, it was challenging for rural African-Americans, both slave and free alike, to acquire the rudiments of literacy in pre-bellum Georgia, though privileged individuals did. When examining the state in its entirety, evidence illustrates that, despite regional variations, numerous African-Americans possessed basic literary skills prior to the Civil War; an existing approximation suggests five percent of slaves and two-thirds of Georgia’s free African-American population were literate by 1860.  African-Americans actively pursued their aspiration for education by diverse and resourceful methods. This self-motivated movement commenced in both urban and rural regions, albeit with more success in the former, decades before the involvement of Northern whites in the state. Accordingly, the African-American response to their desire for knowledge can hardly be described as piteous, as previous historiography suggests. Independent African-American Schoolhouses These determined endeavours in ante-bellum Georgia were not a prologue to the Reconstruction period; they were ‘formative and foundational,’  providing the basis for formal black schooling. By utilising the academic knowledge obtained before the Civil War, African-Americans independently established schoolhouses immediately following Confederate defeat, December 1864. This movement occurred months before Northern white intervention in Georgia, as previously illustrated by Alvord’s report.  Those literate individuals at the time of Georgia’s surrender became the first educators of the race and, to facilitate this tuition, the black community, despite poverty, organised numerous schoolhouses. This movement transpired especially within Savannah, whereby African-Americans betook to education with ‘speed and energy.’  Devoid of funding to purchase or rent structures specifically for black schooling, African-Americans instead capitalised upon limited resources in their possession. Similarly to pre-bellum clandestine instruction, private residences provided accomodation in which tuition could occur at little cost. In September 1865, Susie King Taylor, who was educated in such a covert manner as a child, opened a school within her Savannah home.  Each month Taylor received $1 from every pupil. These payments, although low, proved sufficient to fund the day to day management of the school and supplied Susie with a small salary.  Furthermore, according to Taylor, several schools were already in operation throughout Savannah within residences of fellow African-Americans, including one ran by Mrs Jackson upon the same street as Susie’s own schoolhouse.   In the absence of many alternatives, African-Americans sacrificed their homes for the purpose of educating others. Moreover, African-Americans of Savannah exploited the one aspect of community life in which they enjoyed full control; the church. Central institutions prior to the Civil War, African-American churches possessed greater importance in the Reconstruction period, facilitating further schools in the city. Earliest letters received by the Bureau in 1865 indicate African-American schooling commonly occurred in church property owned by African-American Baptists. In July 1865, just seven months following Georgia’s surrender, former slave Maria Jones organised a school within a black Baptist church, educating 27 fellow freedpeople.  To sustain this tuition, Jones depended upon $1 a month per scholar. Whilst the total was not always supplied, pupils consistently donated what they could afford. The examples above were organised and sustained independently by the grassroots of Savannah’s African-American community, despite impoverishment. This self-reliance is epitomised by the Savannah Education Association (SEA), a black organisation founded by church leaders. Under the auspices of the SEA, two schoolhouses were established in Savannah during January 1865; one located at Oglethorpe and the other, symbolically, in the former Bryan Slave Mart.  These schools, taught by 16 African-American teachers, were ‘supported by the association.’  To supplement SEA funding, the black community donated $1000 following the schoolhouses’ establishment.  Furthermore, while pupils were not required to pay tuition fees, they chose to finance the salaries of the staff; voluntary contributions which remained ‘enough to supply the needed fund.’  Accordingly, the schools were wholly self-sufficient, educating over 700 African-Americans prior to Nort hern white intervention. Similarly, rural African-Americans organised formal schooling before the involvement of Northern whites in Georgia. However, this process did not occur as rapidly or extensively when compared to Savannah; whereas 27 independent black schoolhouses operated in Savannah by November 1865, just 1 existed in Oglethorpe County.  With fewer opportunities to acquire literary skills in the pre-bellum countryside, fewer individuals could become teachers in the Reconstruction period. In many rural counties, ministers comprised the majority of the literate black population.  Furthermore, rural African-Americans were consumed with poverty and, similarly to their urban counterparts, could only exploit resources already in their possession. Consequently, African-American churches facilitated the earliest black schooling in rural Georgia.  However, as only a handful existed in each rural county, black schoolhouses remained low in number prior to Northern white support. Nevertheless, schools were established and sustained independently. In Marietta, Cobb County, August 1865, Reverend Eeli accommodated a school within his church, educating 95 freedpeople.  To ensure continuance of this instruction, each pupil, when able, donated â‚ ¡50 per month.  Similarly, Russel Noah of Madison, Morgan County, learned to read and write as a free African-American in the ante-bellum period. Whilst Noah had ‘never taught school before,’  he began teaching in September 1865, utilising a church in Madison as a schoolhouse. Likewise, Noah’s pupils donated a small sum to maintain this tuition.  Moreover, Reverend Caldwell operated a night school in his church at La Grange, commencing in September 1865.  Whilst black schoolhouses in rural Georgia were by no means common before measures of Northern whites, those which did exist were organised and maintained by the black community. Evidence therefore illustrates, in both rural and urban Georgia, African-Americans independently inaugurated formal black schooling during the early Reconstruction period, prior to Northern white intervention. This education was impelled by local black impetus and was a continuation of the clandestine efforts preceding the Civil War. Despite legislation prohibiting instruction of African-Americans, several members of Georgia’s black community successfully pursued their desire for education. Developing these pre-bellum foundations, literate African-Americans became teachera in the post-bellum era and numerous schoolhouses were self-sufficiently organised to facilitate such tuition. Accordingly, African-American education was not ‘left to the Freedmen’s Bureau and Northern philanthropy’  as previous scholarship has argued. Indeed, as acknowledged by Alvord, Georgia’s African-Americans had already made ‘commendable efforts to educate themselves and their children’  in the summer of 1865. This educational movement in Georgia accords with the conclusions determined by Jenkins and Fuke for the states of South Carolina and Maryland, both of which argue African-American schooling derived from the grassroots of black society.  However, Jenkins and Fuke further assert rural African-Americans were more highly motivated than their urban counterparts in establishing schoolhouses.  Jenkins maintains rural African-Americans perceived themselves as less sophisticated than their urban contemporaries and thus pursued education ‘more diligently.’  Moreover, Fuke claims rural African-Americans were more enthused due to pride; blacks desired to seek as much control over daily life as possible. Conversely, the opposite occurred in Georgia. Within Savannah, African-Americans organised schoolhouses more rapidly and extensively than in rural areas of the state. This discrepancy can be explained by ante-bellum trends. Whilst rural African-Americans in Georgia, likewise to their peers in Maryland and South Carolina, perhaps considered themselves less sophisticated than urban black society and yearned to establish schooling out of pride, one fact remains: there were fewer opportunities to acquire clandestine education in the pre-bellum countryside. Accordingly, fewer literate individuals could be utilised as teachers in the early Reconstruction period. Consequently, it is logical that African-American schools were more sporadic and slower to develop in rural areas of Georgia. Chapter Two The Freedmen’s Bureau In Maryland, Fuke concluded the Freedmen’s Bureau was a catalyst for the ‘expansion’  of education owing to the provision of schoolhouses throughout the state.  Furthermore, he judged that whilst this growth ‘depended heavily on the support of the Bureau†¦it drew equally from the hard work of the black community.’  Ã‚  These arguments are likewise applicable to Georgia, with one exception. Whereas Fuke generalises his claims to the entirety of Maryland, evidence illustrates his conclusions are more relevant to urban, in comparison to rural, Georgia. In accordance with Fuke’s argument, the Bureau developed the existing foundations of African-American schooling in Georgia, serving as an accelerant to the educational movement formed by black society.  Likewise to Maryland, the Bureau enabled the growth of African-American education through the creation of additional schools; advancement impoverished African-Americans could not achieve independently. However, as argued by Fuke, this role of the Bureau, although significant, was only one influence within a process which combined the efforts of the agency and the African-American community of Georgia. As established, African-Americans in Reconstruction Georgia actively inaugurated their own schooling prior to Northern white intervention. However, this tuition was only available to a minority of the black population, especially within rural counties, and poverty hindered the ability of the community to further expand such schooling. Following the Civil War, devastation encompassed the state; ‘destitution and hunger were the kissing cousins of defeat.’  W. Gannett, a NEFAS representative touring Savannah, April 1865, reported ‘there is little money in the city, in black hands or white.’  Similarly, Miss Banfield, a Northern teacher, described Savannah’s African-American community in November, 1865, as ‘very poor.’ Likewise, within rural Georgia, impoverishment was ubiquitous and often more intensified than urban regions. Plantations were destroyed during conflict and starvation caused widespread distress.  Mr Townsler, a freedman of Griffin, informed the Bureau, in September 1865, the local black community was ‘poor’ and ‘destitute of all conveniences and comforts necessary.’  Accordingly, African-Americans within early Reconstruction Georgia lived at a level of subsistence. Consequently, although the black community organised schoolhouses throughout the state prior to Northern white measures, these institutions often struggled to be maintained. In November 1865, Maria Jones, who previously opened a Savannah school, July 1865, feared it would be impossible to teach the following month as the children were ‘too poor to pay for their tuition.’  Similarly, in a church schoolhouse of rural Athens, there was a ‘general disposition among the colored people to educate their children,’ but ‘very few’ could afford tuition payments.  Thus, by November 1865, the future of Mr Schevenelle’s school, established just four months earlier, appeared bleak. As African-Americans were unable to sustain independently established schoolhouses, it was unfeasible for them to self-sufficiently expand the foundations of black education. Consequentially, whilst the black community inaugurated formal African-American schooling in Reconstruction Georgia, its growth can be attributed to the Freedmen’s Bureau. The original Freedmen’s Bureau Act, March 1865, contained no provisions for African-American education.  During the initial year of the agency’s existence, Congress failed to appropriate financial support for black tuition and the Bureau’s educational powers remained limited. Nevertheless, informal activity commenced within Georgia in the winter of 1865; abandoned buildings were authorised as schoolhouses for the African-American community.  In Savannah, November 1865, Tillson secured property previously utilised by Union forces as black schools.  However, as derelict buildings were located predominantly in cities, original benevolence of the Bureau was restricted to urban Georgia. Nonetheless, in the later months of 1865, the agency was already enhancing African-American education where black communities could not, providing accommodation in which further tuition could occur. The Bureau’s educational activities became more effective in July 1866 when, in response to increasing demands for federal provisions specific to African-American education, Congress secured $500,000 for repairing and leasing black schoolhouses throughout the South; an act interpreted loosely by the agency to establish more schools.  Furthermore, this statute allowed the Bureau to seize former Confederate property to facilitate black schooling.  Similarly, in March 1867, Congress donated an additional $500,000 to the Bureau for the purpose of African-American education.  These appropriations proved crucial to the development of African-American schooling in post-bellum Georgia, and the South as a whole. From July 1866 to July 1870, the Georgia Bureau utilised these Congressional enactments to assist the establishment of black schoolhouses throughout the state; a process which occurred in Maryland also. Within this four year period, approximately 105 buildings, some of which were previously owned by the Confederacy, were rented by the Bureau and donated to Georgia’s African-American community specifically to provide surroundings for black education.  Furthermore, by July 1870, the Bureau had financed, in part, the construction of over 50 schoolhouses, including Beach Institute at Savannah, expending over $110,000. Consequently, the Bureau’s material and monetary contributions created an additional 150 African-American schools in Georgia. Thus, in accordance with Fuke’s conclusions, the Bureau facilitated the expansion of African-American schooling, acting as an accelerant to the educational movement already established by the black community of the state.  As a ‘booster of black schooling,’  the Bureau augmented the local efforts of African-Americans into a large-scale movement. However, whilst Fuke’s argument applies to Georgia when generalising the educational movement in the state as a whole, evidence suggests Bureau activities occurred more enthusiastically within urban regions; a distinction not emphasised by Fuke. Reporting on the progress of African-American education for the year of 1866, Alvord noted there were approximately 100 rural counties in Georgia whereby black schoolhouses were yet to be established.  Similarly, in July 1868, Alvord commented the educational aid of the Bureau was concentrated ‘at the centre,’  Ã‚  in towns, as opposed to being ‘distributed throughout the entire state.’ Thus, the Bureau had not ‘spread a thin blanket of education as widely as possible’  in Georgia, as Fuke implies for Maryland. It instead focused its attention upon urban cities, ironically where aid was less needed. This variation can be explained by the differing measures adopted by Bureau agents in each state. In Maryland, the Bureau’s primary aid for African-American education was to provide lumber for the construction of schoolhouses, 60 of which had been established by mid-1866; more than the total constructed by the Georgia Bureau between 1866 and 1870.  Consequently, such donations could be distributed in rural and urban areas, and the Bureau’s benevolence was received throughout the state.  Contrastingly, in Georgia, the Bureau preferred to rent existing structures for the purpose of black education. As properties suitable for this function were primarily located within urban areas, the Bureau’s educational measures were restricted to cities. Moreover, Bureau efforts may have been confined to urban Georgia due to practicality. Owing to post-war migration, the African-American population was concentrated within five primary cities: Savannah, Atlanta, Augusta, Columbus and Macon.  Concentrating work in such regions maximised the Bureau’s efficiency. Aid could be limited to certain areas whilst benefitting a significant proportion of Georgia’s African-American community. Nevertheless, whilst Bureau measures failed to reach the remotest counties of Georgia, and black schools remained relatively sparse in these regions, the agency significantly developed African-American education when examining the state as a whole. Impoverishment would have prevented black society from independently establishing the further 150 schoolhouses organised by the Bureau. Despite the restricted location of its activities, the Bureau proved to be a valuable catalyst in the growth of African-American schooling within Georgia. However, according with Fuke’s conclusion for Maryland, although the Bureau expanded African-American education in Georgia, Bureau schools were not endowments passively bestowed upon African-Americans; they were joint enterprises. Indeed, impetus in the establishment of such schoolhouses still often derived from African-Americans themselves. Whilst the Bureau’s financial donations, as previously stated, allowed the construction of approximately 50 black schoolhouses within the state, the initial foundations of these schools were nonetheless created by black society. The act of Congress dating to July 1866 (providing $500,000 for the leasing and repairing of black schools throughout the South), although interpreted by the Bureau to allow the construction of new schoolhouses, meant that African-Americans were required to contribute towards the establishment of such institutions. If Georgia’s African-American community could finance and raise the framework of a schoolhouse, the Bureau would ‘repair’ the structure and subsidise its remaining construction.  Accordingly, Bureau money ensured the assembling of schoolhouses. However, it was African-American motivation which prompted them. Similarly, whilst the additional $500,000 appropriated by Congress, March 1867, was non-specific as to its use, and could potentially be utilised to wholly finance the construction of new schools, the Georgia Bureau refused to employ funding in this way. Georgia’s officials continued only to pledge monetary support to those who displayed initiative towards education.  Thus, throughout 1867, J.R. Lewis, the Georgia Bureau’s Superintendent of Education, authorised financial donations towards the erection of black schoolhouses only if African-Americans had paid for the landsite and had made ‘progress’  in its construction.  Again, while Bureau funding allowed the creation of these schools, their impetus still derived from African-Americans themselves. Fundamentally, the Bureau simply provided subsidy for the completion of a process already commenced by the African-American community. This role of the agency can be perceived as a microcosm of the wider educational context in Georgia; the Freedmen’s Bureau developed the existing foundations of African-American education, serving as a catalyst within a movement formed by black society. Furthermore, African-American schools within premises rented by the Bureau were likewise cooperative institutions in which the agency and Georgia’s black community contributed. As the Bureau provided financial support for leasing properties, African-Americans desired to do ‘all they possibly can to help themselves’  regarding maintenance of the schools; a challenge which, according to Alvord, was met with ‘enthusiasm.’  Despite impoverishment, African-Americans were ‘willing to pay’  for the secondary expenses of Bureau schools and ‘liberally’  donated money for the purchase of school equipment, as well as building repairs. Moreover, as the Georgia Bureau’s finances dwindled, the responsibility of subsidising Bureau schools fell increasingly to African-Americans themselves.  As early as August 1867, the Bureau reported a lack of monetary reserves, stating ‘the small fund of last year has been exhausted†¦.funds are very limited indeed.’  Consequently, in order to continue black tuition in such schoolhouses, Lewis informed teachers they must ‘rely on the colored people’  to provide money for rent. In response, the black community ‘contributed more than ever before, though struggling with debts,’  and henceforth assumed a ‘large share’  of the cost. In the six months from January to July, 1869, African-Americans expended approximately $20,000 renting school property. By July 1870, the Bureau ceased its educational work throughout the South for want of funds, leaving African-Americans in Bureau schools to manage them self-sufficiently . Thus, although African-Americans could not afford to rent property in the initial years of Reconstruction and required the Bureau’s financial support to expand black schooling, such benevolence was not accepted passively. Despite impoverishment, African-Americans contributed money, demonstrating commitment towards education. Indeed, as Bureau funds declined, the black community accepted more of the financial burden to sustain their schools. Consequently, African-American education within Georgia was not merely ‘left to the Freedmen’s Bureau’  even after its inauguration. Accordingly, as argued by Fuke for Maryland, the Bureau was vital to the growth of black education in Georgia. The agency advanced schooling where African-Americans themselves were unable to, providing a further 150 schoolhouses throughout the state. Without this aid, African-American schooling would have been more sporadic than it already was.  Thus, likewise to its role in Maryland, the Bureau enhanced the existing foundations of African-American education, serving as a catalyst to a movement inaugurated by the black community; a process which occurred, however, more intensely within urban Georgia. Nonetheless, in accordance with Fuke’s conclusion, to attribute all praise to the Freedmen’s Bureau, as previous scholarship has chosen to, denies the altruistic and self-sacrificing efforts of the black community towards their education. Although the Bureau expanded African-American schooling, Georgia’s black population did not adopt a passive position in this development. Bureau schools were joint institutions. Indeed, the impetus for such schoolhouses often derived from African-Americans themselves and, once established, the black community willingly contributed funds to sustain their tuition. Chapter Three Northern Benevolent Associations Previous scholarship concerning Reconstruction Georgia argues that, in conjunction with the Freedmen’s Bureau, Northern Benevolent Associations were ‘entirely responsible’  for establishing African-American education.  Yet this conclusion does not take into consideration the foundations created by African-Americans themselves. Contrastingly, for the state of Maryland, Fuke has demonstrated that, as African-American schooling derived from the grassroots of black society, Northern whites instead served as facilitators to African-American education; the Bureau expanded black schooling and Northern Benevolence enhanced the standard of teaching available to the African-American community. Likewise to his conclusion of the Bureau’s role, Fuke’s argument regarding Northern aid societies is applicable to this case-study of Georgia. Whilst African-American education was inaugurated by the black community, and supported by the Bureau, there were limits to what African-American teachers, who were devoid of formal schooling preceding the Civil War, could achieve independently.  Although many acquired a degree of literacy in the pre-bellum era, their understanding was frequently basic and, consequently, inaccurate information was imparted. Thus, by transporting qualified educators to Georgia and establishing higher education within the state, Northern aid societies augmented the quality of African-American tuition. Prior to Northern benevolence, African-Americans, in both rural and urban Georgia, resourcefully utilised members of the black community who had obtained literary skills in the ante-bellum era as educators of the race. Indeed, as observed by Alvord, the black population were quick to ‘communicate to each other what they already know [sic]’  in the months following Georgia’s surrender. However, while literate African-Americans became teachers in an effort to ‘uplift their brethren,’  the education offered was often of a low standard. Within correspondence received by the Bureau, the spelling and grammar of black instructors is frequently poor. A letter composed by Eeli, who organised a school in rural Marietta, 1865, illustrates this concept when informing the Bureau of the ‘follering reports:’ there were 95 ‘knowne’ pupils who were ‘tort’ in a schoolhouse which had ‘bin’ organised since August and was owned by the ‘collard’ Baptists.  Similarly, Reverend Rucker of Marietta concluded a school report by acknowledging his scanty literary skills: ‘if my reporte is not right†¦you will pleas look over that and forgive.’  Furthermore, in rural Greensborough, African-American teacher Charles Brown enquired whether the Bureau could provide slates and pencils ‘if posibel.’  Similarly, in urban Savannah, black instructors displayed only basic knowledge of writing. Maria Jones, who established a school in the city, July 186 5, could spell accurately, yet possessed little understanding of grammar: ‘I am colored teacher. Have been teaching since July.’ Accordingly, a ‘smattering of education’  attained in the pre-bellum era was considered enough to qualify a black teacher; those with literary skills, however limited, were beacons to their illiterate counterparts. However, whilst these instructors could educate fellow African-Americans in their ABC’s, inaccurate habits, such as those manifested in Bureau letters, would have been transferred to students. Consequently, only the rudiments of literacy could be imparted independently within the black community and, even then, they were done so imperfectly. Georgia’s first African-American teachers were therefore perceived by Northern whites, government and benevolent, as inept.  Following a tour of the state, mid-1866, J.R. Lewis commented black teachers were ‘incompetent†¦[and] could scarcely read,’  a belief echoed by NEFAS/AMA representatives.  By 1869, Lewis’ opinion had not altered: their ‘ignorance’ generally did ‘more harm than good.’  Similarly, Alvord considered African-American educators to be ‘poorly prepared’ as they instructed ‘only in the alphabet’. Consequently, from late-1865 to 1870, approximately 370 qualified Northern teachers were transported to Georgia by philanthropic associations, primarily the AMA and NEFAS; a process which likewise occurred in Maryland and South Carolina.  Fundamentally, these teachers enhanced black education where African-Americans could not. Unlike their African-American counterparts, white instructors had completed higher education and possessed experience in the classroom. Lucy and Sarah Chase, transported by NEFAS to Savannah, December 1865, were ‘of the highest rank of New England’s ladies’  and had ‘proven themselves’  as talented teachers. Similarly, Linda Jacobs, likewise sent to the city by NEFAS, had ‘demonstrated her ability to fill any place you may assign her.’  Moreover, the AMA sponsored Miss Meye, ‘an experienced teacher,’  and a male ‘normal school graduate’  to teach within Georgia. Such educators, according to Alvord, were ‘competent in every respect;’  a contrast to poorly prepared black instructors. Moreover, alongside superior scholarship, Northern white teachers were equipped with educational resources that African-American teachers lacked, further enhancing the standard of teaching available to black society. African-American schoolhouses established and maintained independently were frequently devoid of academic textbooks.  While some black teachers utilised the Bible as a primer, the text was too advanced and proved ineffectual for this purpose.  White educators transported to Georgia, however, furnished ‘a large quantity of scholar’s books.’  Teachers sponsored by NEFAS taught with Progressive Readers and those supported by the AMA used Wilson’s Primary Speller, Fetter’s Primary Arithmetic and McGuffey’s Reader.  These textbooks were based upon the primary curriculum of Northern common schools and thus provided a more academically enriching classroom environment compared to the self-sufficient endeavours of the black communi ty. By transporting teachers and resources to Georgia, benevolent associations ensured short-term improvement in the quality of African-American tuition. In receiving a better education themselves, Northern instructors progressed African-American schooling beyond the standard taught independently within black society. Furthermore, in contrast to the informal efforts of black teachers, primers standardised African-American instruction, providing a solid, comprehensive curriculum.  Thus, in accordance with Fuke’s conclusion for Maryland, aid societies enhanced the quality of black schooling in Georgia, serving as catalysts to African-American education. However, Fuke generalises this argument making little distinction between urban and rural regions, suggesting Northern munificence was distributed reasonably evenly throughout Maryland.  Nonetheless, within Georgia, philanthropic activities demonstrated an ‘urban bias’  similarly to the Freedmen’s Bureau. According to Alvord, educational measures of benevolent associations were concentrated in the ‘principal cities.’  Furthermore, from late 1865-1870, approximately 70 percent of Northern teachers transported to Georgia were sent to urban areas.  This variation between Maryland and Georgia is explicable by the relationship between the Bureau and Northern societies; the Bureau functioned as a central organisation in the educational movement, coordinating the efforts of aid associations. Thus, it is logical that philanthropic activities within both Georgia and Maryland were directed in the same manner as those of the Bureau within each state. As an extension to Fuke’s conclusions, this case-study of Georgia suggests higher education also benefitted the standard of African-American tuition. In addition to furnishing short term support for black schooling, albeit more so in urban regions, benevolent associations provided long-term assistance to African-American education in Georgia. As established, black teachers who were devoid of professional training could only teach to a limited level. To progress their ability to instruct beyond the rudiments of literacy, these instructors required a better education themselves; a process unachievable within the black community. Accordingly, African-Americans required Northern support in order to ‘teach the teachers.’ During the early Reconstruction period, the AMA placed emphasis upon higher education and by 1870 it had established approximately 157 normal schools throughout the South, a number of which located in urban Georgia.  Storrs school in Atlanta and Lewis High School in Macon, for example, served as institutions of teacher training whereby black teachers received specialised instruction equivalent to their white counterparts. The most significant contribution of the AMA, however, was Atlanta University, founded June 1867, at the cost of $20,000.  Teacher training commenced in 1869, intending to fulfil the ‘much needed’ work in the state – the ‘preparation of black teachers’ for African-American schools.  By April 1869, the college possessed a normal class of 30 pupils, with an additional 70 scholars expected the following autumn term, all of whom were ‘taught the methods of imparting instruction [for] successful teaching.’  Furthermore, by 1870, the university had educated approximately 70 African-American graduates able teach to a level comparable to Northern whites. This new generation of African-American educators could therefore teach to a higher quality than the first black instructors of the state, enabling African-Americans to self-sufficiently progress their education beyond its previously limited level.  This was both a preference of Georgia’s black community, for African-Americans preferred to send children to black teachers, as opposed to white, and, increasingly, a necessity as Northern associations became ‘crippled’  for want of funds.  Fundamentally, whilst African-Americans independently inaugurated formal black schooling, Northern benevolence allowed black teaching to continue independently. Accordingly, the conclusion determined by Fuke for Maryland applies to Georgia; Northern aid societies augmented the quality of tuition where African-Americans could not self-sufficiently progress beyond certain limits, serving as catalysts to black education. Whilst literate African-Americans became the first educators of the race, their standard of teaching was restricted. With scanty literary skills themselves, black instructors only imparted basic knowledge. Thus, qualified Northern teachers immediately enhanced the standard of African-American education in Georgia. However, unlike their contemporaries in Maryland, Georgia’s rural black communities were somewhat dismissed. Furthermore, developing Fuke’s argument, higher education in Georgia likewise benefitted the level of black instruction; African-Americans could independently teach to a higher quality, improving the long-term conditions of black schooling. Whilst black society initiated its own tuition, Northern philanthropy enhanced it. Conclusion Scholarship regarding African-American education in the Reconstruction South has transformed during the last 50 years, gradually acknowledging the efforts of African-Americans themselves. However, only recent historiography concludes such schooling derived from black impetus. This argument has been applied, in particular, to Maryland and South Carolina. Jenkins argues African-Americans educated themselves in post-bellum South Carolina in a self-sufficient movement continuing the concealed efforts of the pre-bellum era.  Similarly, Fuke demonstrates African-American schooling in Maryland derived from grassroots impetus and Northern whites operated as catalysts within this movement created by black society; the Bureau facilitated its expansion by creating additional schoolhouses and Northern philanthropists enhanced the quality instruction. This dissertation intended to ascertain how far these combined conclusions apply to Georgia. Evidently, research suggests the educational movement in Georgia did largely accord with its counterparts in South Carolina and Maryland, with one exception; variations in the concentration of educational efforts are apparent. Nevertheless, the inauguration of formal black schooling in post-bellum Georgia, likewise to Maryland and South Carolina, can be attributed to the African-American community. This process, as concluded by Jenkins, commenced in the period preceding the Civil War. Despite legislation prohibiting instruction of African-Americans in Georgia, numerous individuals, slave and free alike, pursued their desire for education, acquiring a degree of literacy. Whilst this process occurred throughout the state, it was more challenging for rural African-Americans to obtain literary skills. Developing these foundations, African-Americans with even a modicum of knowledge became the first educators of the race in post-bellum Georgia. To accommodate such tuition, the black community exploited resources in its possession, organising formal schoolhouses prior to Northern white intervention. Indeed, 75 independently established and maintained schools existed by the summer of 1865.  Essentially, African-Americans taught each other whatever they knew and wherever they could. This educational movement was a continuation of pre-bellum efforts; formerly clandestine activity prior to the Civil War merely manifested itself visibly in post-bellum Georgia. Accordingly, the conclusions of Fuke and Jenkins apply to the state: formal African-American schooling was inaugurated independently by the black community. However, whereas their research suggests rural African-Americans were more motivated in establishing black schoolhouses, the antithesis occurred in Georgia; with fewer opportunities in the ante-bellum countryside to acquire education, fewer individuals could be utilised as teachers in the early Reconstruction period. Nevertheless, despite the concentration of educational efforts in urban Georgia, black schooling was initiated throughout the state by African-Americans themselves. Furthermore, Fuke’s conclusions concerning Northern whites in Maryland likewise apply to Georgia, again, however, with one exception. As in Maryland, the Bureau served as a catalyst in Georgia, expanding African-American education. Following the agency’s money and material donations, the number of black schoolhouses substantially increased in the state; advancement impoverished African-Americans could not accomplish independently. Nonetheless, despite the similarity of the Bureau’s overall influence in both states, a distinction can be ascertained. Whereas aid was distributed throughout Maryland, it was restricted primarily to urban Georgia; a variation explicable by the differing measures favoured by Bureau agents of each state. However, despite urban bias, the Bureau proved a valuable contribution in the growth of African-American schooling when examining Georgia as a whole. Nevertheless, although the Bureau expanded black schooling in Georgia, African-Americans did not adopt a passive role in this development, likewise to their contemporaries in Maryland. The impetus for Bureau schools frequently derived from the black community and, despite impoverishment, African-Americans sacrificed money towards their education. Bureau schools were therefore cooperative ventures and not endowments. Moreover, Fuke’s argument regarding Northern philanthropy in Maryland likewise applies to Georgia with one exception. Similarly to their role in Maryland, aid societies augmented the quality of black tuition in Georgia, serving as facilitators to the state’s educational movement. Whilst literate African-Americans became the first educators of the race, their standard of instruction was limited. Thus, by transporting qualified teachers to Georgia, Northern munificence enhanced the level of instruction available to black society. However, although the influence of Northern benevolence was similar in Maryland and Georgia, a distinction can be determined; educational activities were distributed throughout Maryland yet concentrated predominantly in urban Georgia. This pattern, within both states, echoes the measures of the Bureau. As the Bureau coordinated the efforts of Northern associations, it is logical their activities were directed in the same manner as those of the ag ency itself. Extending Fuke’s conclusion, higher education within Georgia further developed the standard of African-American tuition. By providing black teachers with professional training equivalent to their white counterparts, the AMA allowed African-Americans to teach to a higher standard than the level previously attained. Whilst African-Americans independently inaugurated black schooling, Northern benevolence allowed black teaching to continue independently. Accordingly, although discrepancies between the rural and urban experience are apparent when comparing Georgia to Maryland and South Carolina, the educational movement in Georgia, when examining the state as a whole, largely accords with the combined conclusions determined by Fuke and Jenkins; formal African-American schooling in the Reconstruction period was inaugurated self-sufficiently and Northern whites did act as catalysts within this process established by black society.